Persecution of Copts

The persecution of Copts and broader patterns of discrimination against Christians in Egypt are reflected in a range of documented incidents throughout the country's history, including cases of forced conversion, as well as other forms of systemic marginalization. These experiences align with broader challenges facing Christian communities across the Middle East.

Copts, who constitute the Christian population of Egypt and primarily belong to the Oriental Orthodox tradition, make up an estimated 10% of Egypt's total population. They represent the largest religious minority in the country.

Throughout modern Egyptian history, Copts have reported instances of discrimination, sectarian violence, and social marginalization. Human Rights Watch has documented increasing religious intolerance and attacks against Christian communities in recent decades, and has criticized the Egyptian government for its repeated failure to adequately investigate or prosecute such incidents. In some cases, commentators and religious leaders have argued that incidents targeting Christians may be influenced by political or socio-economic tensions rather than religious motives alone.

Human rights organizations and community advocacy groups have also raised ongoing concerns regarding the abduction and forced disappearance of Christian women and girls. These incidents are frequently cited in the context of broader patterns of sectarian discrimination.

Recent reports indicate some improvement in the situation of Christians in Egypt, particularly in the area of church construction. Christians have gained greater freedom to build and renovate churches in several regions, marking a shift from earlier restrictive policies. This follows the 2016 Church Construction Law, which, despite early criticism, has resulted in the legalization of thousands of churches. Increased cooperation from government authorities has been reported, and in some areas, communities have built new places of worship without obstruction. Observers view these developments as signs of reduced overt persecution, though social discrimination and bureaucratic obstacles remain.

Following the 2011 revolution and during the rule of the Muslim Brotherhood in 2013, the Christian nonprofit organization Open Doors ranked Egypt 25th out of 50 countries on its World Watch List of nations where Christians face the highest levels of persecution. By 2025, Egypt had dropped to 40th place out of 50, indicating a measurable decline in reported persecution. Although challenges remain, Egypt ranked among the least dangerous countries in the region for Christians, behind Jordan, Turkey, and Qatar.

History

Roman Egypt

According to tradition, St. Mark the Evangelist founded the See of Alexandria and became its first Patriarch. By the late first century, Christian writings had appeared in Oxyrhynchus, suggesting that Christianity had spread beyond Alexandria in its early stages. During the mid-third century, Christians in Egypt faced systematic persecution under Roman imperial policies, beginning with the Edict of Decius. Under Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305), persecution intensified, and large numbers of Egyptian Christians were executed. This period, remembered in the Coptic calendar as the "Era of the Martyrs," marked a significant point in the development of a distinct Egyptian Christian tradition.

In response to persecution, many Christians retreated to the desert, where the ascetic lifestyle gave rise to the monastic movement. Egypt became a center of early Christian monasticism, led by figures such as Anthony the Great, Pachomius, Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite, and Saint Amun. By the end of the 4th century, Christianity had become the dominant religion in Egypt.

In 451 CE, the Council of Chalcedon led to a schism within the Church of Alexandria. Supporters of the council, known as Chalcedonians or Melkites, diverged from those who rejected its Christological definition, often referred to (by their opponents) as Monophysites. The latter preferred the term Miaphysite, which they regarded as more theologically accurate. The majority of Egyptian Christians adhered to the Miaphysite doctrine, leading to conflict with the Byzantine Empire, particularly under emperors Marcian and Leo I the Thracian. Persecution continued under Cyrus of Alexandria, especially during the period of Monothelitism, until the Muslim conquest of Egypt.

Under Muslim rule

See also: Islamization of Egypt

Middle Ages

The Muslim conquest of Egypt occurred between 639 and 641 CE, during the reign of Emperor Heraclius, at a time when the Byzantine authorities continued to suppress non-Chalcedonian Christians. Under Muslim rule, Christians were classified as dhimmi, a protected class under Islamic law. This status allowed them to practice their religion publicly and exempted them from military service in exchange for paying the jizya tax.

While initial policies granted religious freedom, over time discriminatory practices increased. Historical accounts suggest that pressure to convert, including social and economic incentives, contributed to a gradual Islamization of the population.

Some accounts from the early Islamic period illustrate the imbalance in power between Muslim rulers and Christian subjects. A notable example attributed to Amr ibn al-As describes the limited ability of Copts to invoke treaties and their subjection to arbitrary authority.

Under the Fatimid Caliphate, especially during the reign of Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, policies toward non-Muslims fluctuated sharply. Al-Hakim issued a series of decrees prohibiting Christian festivals, restricting religious symbols, and imposing dress codes to distinguish Jews and Christians. In 1009, he ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, an act that had significant repercussions for interreligious relations. He also implemented severe bans on the Coptic language, with harsh punishments for non-compliance.

Although Coptic Christianity remained widespread in Egypt for several centuries, it began to lose its majority status after the 14th century. Under Saladin, discriminatory laws were reinstated, and by the Mamluk period, the legal enforcement of non-Muslim identification through clothing had become standard.

Widespread violence against Christians occurred in the 14th century. Riots in 1321, described by historian Donald P. Little as coordinated attacks, destroyed numerous churches and monasteries across Egypt. In 1354, mobs reportedly targeted Christians and Jews, coercing them to convert to Islam or face death. Accounts from contemporary chroniclers like Al-Maqrizi suggest this period marked a sharp decline in the Christian population. Some sources estimate that as many as 300,000 Christians may have been killed during the Mamluk era.

In certain cases, individuals who had converted to Islam but later sought to return to Christianity faced execution, highlighting the risks associated with apostasy.

In 1389, a great procession of Copts who had accepted Muhammad under fear of death, marched through Cairo. Repenting of their apostasy, they now wished to atone for it by the inevitable consequence of returning to Christianity. So as they marched, they announced that they believed in Christ and renounced Muhammad. They were seized and all the men were beheaded one after another in an open square before the women. But this did not terrify the women; so they, too, were all martyred.

Anti-Christian violence was further exacerbated by resentment toward the administrative prominence of Copts in the state bureaucracy.

Ottoman Egypt

Edward William Lane, an Arabist who traveled around Egypt in the 1820s disguised as a Muslim, was one of the first modern Europeans to witness the execution of an apostate—in this case, a female convert to Christianity who was exposed by her Coptic cross tattoo. Lane recounts:

Apostasy from the faith of Islam is considered a most heinous sin, and must be punished with death, unless the apostate will recant on being thrice warned. I once saw a woman paraded through the streets of Cairo, and afterwards taken down to the Nile to be drowned, for having apostatized from the faith of Muhammad, and having married a Christian. Unfortunately, she tattooed a blue cross on her arm, which led to her detection by one of her former friends in a bath. She was mounted upon a high-saddled ass, such as ladies in Egypt usually ride, and very respectably dressed, attended by soldiers, and surrounded by a rabble, who, instead of commiserating, uttered loud imprecations against her. The Kadee [or qadi, a Muslim judge] who passed sentence upon her, exhorted her, in vain, to return to her former faith. She was taken in a boat into the midst of the river, stripped nearly naked, strangled and then thrown into the stream.

Legal restrictions on church construction were codified in the Hamayouni Decree of 1856, which required imperial approval for new churches and renovations. These limitations persisted under the Ten Conditions of Al-Ezabi until their revocation in 1999.

Contemporary

Observers have noted a gap between the legal rights afforded to Coptic Christians and other minorities in Egypt and the reality of their implementation. While the Egyptian parliament passed a law in 2016 aimed at simplifying the process for Christians to obtain government approval to build churches, reports indicate that security authorities have obstructed actual construction in some cases. Egypt also does not officially recognize conversions from Islam to Christianity.

Government regulations require permits for constructing or renovating churches, and these are often delayed or denied. Article 235 of Egypt's 2013 draft constitution mandates that the first post-constitution parliament pass a law regulating church construction in a manner intended to ease restrictions.

Critics have also pointed to the use of informal "reconciliation councils" to resolve disputes involving Christians and Muslims. These councils, often dominated by local authorities or community leaders, have been criticized for favoring Muslim parties and for operating outside the formal judicial system. There are also allegations of police inaction in response to crimes targeting Christians. Representation of Christians in state institutions remains limited, contributing to perceptions of political marginalization.

Egyptian officials and commentators often attribute communal violence in rural areas to tribal customs and long-standing local rivalries rather than systemic religious discrimination.

Claims of discrimination have extended to the realm of sports, where Christians are reportedly underrepresented in national athletic delegations, including the national football team. In 2018, Pope Tawadros II remarked that "it is extraordinary that all of Egypt’s football teams do not have a single Copt who played football in his youth". Former national team player Ahmed Hossam, known as Mido, stated in an interview that "regrettably, there's a lot of people in Egypt who are bigoted over colour, religion and ethnicity... In the history of football in Egypt, only five Christians have played at the top level."

List of incidents

Date	Location	Description	Casualties	Source(s)
20 June 1981	Zawya Hamra, Egypt	Clashes between members of the Muslim Brotherhood and Christians result in the deaths of five Christians, four Muslims, and one unidentified person.	10 dead
21 June 1991	Asyut, Egypt	Morcos Khalil, a priest of the Church of Saint Victor, is killed.	1 dead	[1]
9 March 1992	Dairut, Egypt	Badr Abdullah Massoud, a Christian farmer's son, is shot after refusing to pay an extortion demand. His body is later mutilated.	1 dead
4 May 1992	Dairut, Egypt	An armed assailant kills 13 Christians in separate incidents, including farmers in the fields, a doctor, and a schoolteacher.	13 dead
12 February 1997	Abu Qirqas, Egypt	Three masked gunmen enter a church and open fire during a youth meeting, killing eight Christians. A ninth is killed while the attackers flee.	9 dead
13 March 1997	Bahgoura, Egypt	Armed assailants fire indiscriminately in the village, killing 13 and injuring 15. A fleeing group also opens fire on a train, killing one additional person.	14 dead, 15 injured
January 2000	Kosheh, Egypt	Rioting following a dispute between a Muslim customer and a Christian shopkeeper leads to the deaths of 20 Christians and one Muslim.	21 dead
February 2001	Egypt	A church and 35 Christian homes are set on fire in February.	-
April 2001	Egypt	A 14-year-old Christian girl was abducted after her family was suspected of harboring a convert from Islam.	-
19 April 2009	Hegaza, Egypt	Armed individuals open fire during Easter Eve, resulting in two Christian deaths and one injury.	2 dead, 1 injured
7 January 2010	Naga Hammadi, Egypt	Gunmen open fire on Christian worshippers leaving a Christmas service. Six Christians and one Muslim police officer are killed.	7 dead
1 January 2011	Alexandria, Egypt	A car bomb detonates outside a Christian church shortly after a New Year’s Eve service concludes. One week later, thousands of Muslims stood as human shields outside churches during Christmas Mass on 6–7 January 2011.	21 dead, 79 injured
11 January 2011	Samalut, Egypt	A police officer opens fire on a train, killing a 71-year-old Christian man and injuring five others.	1 dead, 5 injured
30 January 2011	Egypt	Following political unrest, attackers enter Christian homes and kill 11 people.	11 dead, 4 injured
5 March 2011	Cairo, Egypt	A church is set on fire after a personal dispute involving an interfaith relationship. Subsequent protests occur.	1 church destroyed
7 May 2011	Cairo, Egypt	Multiple churches and Christian homes are attacked; 15 people are killed and over 200 injured.	15 dead, 232 injured
18 May 2011	Cairo, Egypt	A Christian church converted from a factory is attacked by a mob; two Christians are later sentenced.	-
18 September 2012	Sohag, Egypt	A Christian schoolteacher is sentenced to six years in prison for posting allegedly defamatory images.	-
April 2013	Cairo, Egypt	Clashes erupt following a Christian funeral, resulting in multiple deaths.	6 dead
July 2013	Egypt	Widespread attacks on Christian churches and individuals following the ousting of President Morsi.	At least 45 dead
6 July 2013	El Arish, Egypt	Mina Aboud, a Christian priest, is killed.	1 dead	[2]
March 2014	Cairo, Egypt	Mary Sameh George, a Christian woman, is killed after being identified by a cross in her car.	1 dead
December 2014	Libya	A Christian doctor and his family are killed; the motive is determined to be religious.	3 dead
15 February 2015	Sirte, Libya	Video shows the beheading of 21 Christians by ISIL.	21 dead
February 2016	Minya, Egypt	Three Christian teenagers are sentenced to five years in prison for appearing in a video allegedly mocking Islam.	-
26 May 2016	Minya, Egypt	A Christian woman is assaulted and paraded through the streets by a mob after her son is accused of having a relationship with a Muslim woman.	-
11 December 2016	Cairo, Egypt	A suicide bombing at a Christian church kills 29 and injures 47.	29 dead, 47 injured
February 2017	El Arish, Egypt	ISIL calls for attacks on Christians; seven are killed in separate incidents.	7 dead
9 April 2017	Tanta and Alexandria, Egypt	Bombings target churches during Palm Sunday services.	45+ dead, 130+ injured
7 May 2017	El Arish, Egypt	A Christian man is killed by suspected ISIL militants.	1 dead
26 May 2017	Minya, Egypt	Gunmen attack a bus carrying Christian pilgrims to a monastery.	28 dead
12 October 2017	Cairo, Egypt	A Christian priest is killed in a knife attack.	1 dead
29 December 2017	Cairo, Egypt	A gunman opens fire at a church and nearby shop.	11 dead
1 January 2018	Giza, Egypt	Two Christian brothers are shot outside a liquor store.	2 dead
15 January 2018	El Arish, Egypt	A Christian man is shot in the head by ISIL after being asked his religion.	1 dead
2 November 2018	Minya, Egypt	Gunmen ambush a bus of Christian pilgrims.	7 dead, 7 injured
12 December 2018	Minya, Egypt	A police officer kills a Christian man and his son.	2 dead
5 October 2020	Samalut, Egypt	A mob attacks Christian homes following a local altercation.	Several injured
18 April 2021	Bir al-Abd, Egypt	ISIL releases video of a Christian man being executed after five months in captivity.	1 dead
27 May 2021	Egypt	A Christian monk is executed following conviction for killing an abbot; allegations of torture are raised.	1 dead
19 July 2021	Surrey, Canada	A Coptic Orthodox church is burned down amid a string of arsons targeting churches.	-
7 April 2022	Alexandria, Egypt	Arsanios Wadid is fatally stabbed in the street.	1 dead	[3]
3 November 2024	Minya, Egypt	Christians are attacked by a group of Muslims during a local dispute.	Unknown	[4]

Abductions and forced conversions

Agape Girgis, a 13-year-old Egyptian girl, was reportedly abducted from Amreya, near Alexandria, on December 23, 2012, according to the Assyrian International News Agency.

There have been documented reports of abductions of Christian women and girls in Egypt, often involving allegations of forced conversion to Islam and subsequent marriages to Muslim men.

A 2009 study by the Washington, D.C.-based organization Christian Solidarity International reported that victims often face significant legal and social barriers to returning to Christianity once converted. Allegations of organized abductions, human trafficking, and complicity by local authorities have continued into the 2010s.

In April 2010, a bipartisan group of 17 members of the U.S. Congress submitted a letter to the State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, citing reports of Christian women subjected to physical and sexual violence, captivity, and forced domestic servitude, often for the financial benefit of individuals facilitating conversions.

According to the Egyptian NGO Association of Victims of Abduction and Forced Disappearance, approximately 550 Christian girls were abducted between 2011 and March 2014. The group claims that a significant proportion were subjected to sexual assault and subsequently forced to marry their abductors after converting to Islam.

Reports published in 2017 and 2018 suggest that such incidents may have increased with the rise of Salafist networks under the administration of President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. Some sources allege that financial incentives, up to $3,000 per case, have been offered to individuals for the abduction and forced conversion of Christian women.

See also

• Christianity in Egypt
• Human rights in Egypt#Freedom of religion
• Human rights in the Middle East
• Human rights in Muslim-majority countries
• Persecution of Christians
• Religion in Egypt
• Christianity and Islam
• Controversies related to Islam and Muslims
• Anti-Oriental Orthodox sentiment

Bibliography

• Haddad, Yvonne; Donovan, Joshua (2013). "Good Copt, Bad Copt: Competing Narratives on Coptic Identity in Egypt and the United States". Studies in World Christianity. 19 (3): 208–232. doi:10.3366/swc.2013.0058. - Print ISSN 1354-9901 Online ISSN 1750-0230
• Little, Donald P. (1976). "Coptic Conversion to Islam under the Baḥrī Mamlūks, 692-755/1293-1354". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 39 (3): 552–569. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00051004. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 614714. S2CID 170719417. Retrieved 5 October 2024.
• Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization. Routledge. ISBN 9780415966900.
• Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881410556.
• Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
• Stillman, Norman (8 June 2022). Arab Dress, A Short History: From the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times. BRILL. pp. 104–106. ISBN 978-90-04-49162-5. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
• Thomas, David; Roggema, Barbara (2009), Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 1 (600-900), BRILL, ISBN 9789004169753

External links

• European Centre for Law and Justice (2011): The Persecution of Oriental Christians, what answer from Europe?