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Needs more work before going live

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Fetal Exposure

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A pregnant woman’s behavior and environment can greatly influence fetal lead exposure. If a mother inhales or swallows lead particles during pregnancy, lead can be transferred from the mother’s blood, through the placenta and into the fetus.[1] A mother’s history of lead exposure can also put the baby at risk. When a mother’s diet lacks sufficient calcium, her bones release stored calcium into the fetal environment to sustain proper nutrition. However, since lead is also stored in bone marrow, it can be transferred to the fetus along with calcium.[2] Even if the mother avoids lead exposure before and during pregnancy, the fetus can be exposed through paternal sources. Semen contains a high level of lead and can contribute as much as 10% to fetal lead levels upon conception.[3] Sperm can also carry lead, though the amount passed to the fetus is unknown.[4]

Fetal lead exposure can cause defects during many stages of development. First, fetal development can be stunted altogether, resulting in premature birth and low birth weight. In more extreme cases, fetal brain damage may occur.[1] Health effects can also be delayed until after birth, and present when higher levels of neurological function develop in later childhood.[5] While many studies have linked lead exposure in early childhood with neurological development disorders, more recent studies suggest fetal lead exposure as a more critical stage for long-term health.[6]

Childhood Exposure

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While lead exposure is dangerous at any age, infants and young children are especially sensitive to lead poisoning due to their developing systems. Infants may be exposed through their mother’s breast milk, which can be contaminated with lead from both blood lead and lead released from bones. Lead levels in breast milk can exceed the mother’s blood lead levels by 166%, and may be passed to the infant during feeding. [7] Toddlers and children can be exposed to lead through paint, gasoline, solder and household products containing lead. Since children are learning to walk, crawl, and use their mouths to explore the world around them, they are more likely to swallow and breathe in dust contaminated with lead. The most common way children are exposed to lead is through chips of lead paint. Children who live in older homes with lead paint have higher blood lead levels than those who do not.[8]

Diagnosis in Children

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It can be difficult to detect lead poisoning in young children because symptoms can take months or years to present. The most common signs of lead poisoning are gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms. Gastrointestinal symptoms include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, constipation, and a metallic taste in the mouth. Neurological changes include shorter attention span, hyperactivity, headache, fatigue, and impulsiveness.[9] Diagnosis is made based on a mixture of gastrointestinal symptoms, behavioral issues and a history of likely or known contact with a lead source. At blood lead levels higher than 100 µg/dl, children may show evidence of encephalopathy, which includes loss of muscle control (i.e. ataxia), seizure and coma. A child may be at risk for future central nervous system damage even if symptoms are not identified during a physical examination.[10] Several studies have linked high blood lead levels to lower IQ and lower academic success. [9] Slowed speech development and long-term intellectual disabilities are also common. Studies have found that for every 1 µg/dl of lead in the blood a child’s IQ can be expected to drop 0.25.[11]

Governmental Standards and Prevention Strategies

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Currently, blood lead levels at or above 5 μg/dL are considered elevated. However, according to the Centers for Disease Control, no amount of blood lead level is safe, as health problems can occur at levels of exposure below 5 μg/dL.[9] Since removing lead from the environment is difficult, preventing leaching into the environment is the best method for reducing lead exposure.[8]

Low income, minority, immigrant and elderly populations are at increased risk for lead exposure.[12] The CDC enacted the Lead Contamination Control Act of 1988 to  try and stop childhood lead exposure with housing policy, education, screening programs, and research.[12]  Other prevention programs include parental counseling during prenatal care and at pediatric visits.[9] Many lead exposure prevention programs exist due to differences in housing quality, nutrition and other environmental factors among populations.[9] Thus, focusing on improving housing in low income neighborhoods is a prominent prevention program.

Moved here

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So you can do the work.

Most of this is not signs or symptoms.

Let me know when you have made the changes as explained below. Please share this with the rest of your class and your instructor. Doc James (talk · contribs · email) 18:28, 29 October 2017 (UTC)[reply]

Welcome

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Welcome to Wikipedia and Wikiproject Medicine

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Doc James (talk · contribs · email) 18:28, 29 October 2017 (UTC)[reply]
  1. ^ a b Needham, L. L., Grandjean, P., Heinzow, B., Jorgensen, P. J., Nielsen, F., Patterson, D. G., Jr., Weihe, P. (2011). Partition of environmental chemicals between maternal and fetal
  2. ^ Gulson, B. L., Mizon, K. J., Korsch, M. J., Palmer, J. M., & Donnelly, J. B. (2003). Mobilization of lead from human bone tissue during pregnancy and lactation--a summary of long-term research. Sci Total Environ, 303(1-2), 79-104.
  3. ^ Klemmt, L., & Scialli, A. R. (2005). The transport of chemicals in semen. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol, 74(2), 119-131. doi:10.1002/bdrb.20031
  4. ^ Kapp, R. W., & Tyl, R. W. (2010). Reproductive toxicology (3rd ed.). New York: Informa Healthcare.
  5. ^ Slikker, W., & Chang, L. W. (1998). Handbook of developmental neurotoxicology. San Diego: Academic Press.
  6. ^ Hu, H., Tellez-Rojo, M. M., Bellinger, D., Smith, D., Ettinger, A. S., Lamadrid-Figueroa, H., Hernandez-Avila, M. (2006). Fetal lead exposure at each stage of pregnancy a
  7. ^ Gulson, B. L., Mizon, K. J., Korsch, M. J., Palmer, J. M., & Donnelly, J. B. (2003). Mobilization of lead from human bone tissue during pregnancy and lactation--a summary of long-term research. Sci Total Environ, 303(1-2), 79-104.
  8. ^ a b Committee on Environmental Health (October 2005). Lead Exposure in Children: Prevention, Detection, and Management. Pediatrics Volume 116, 4. Retrieved from: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/116/4/1036.
  9. ^ a b c d e Garcia-Esquinas, E., Perez-Gomez, B., Fernandez-Navarro, P., Fernandez, M. A., de Paz, C., Perez-Meixeira, A. M., Aragones, N. (2013). Lead, mercury and cadmium in umbilical cord blood and its association with parental epidemiological variables and birth factors. BMC Public Health, 13, 841. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-841
  10. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1991). Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children. Chapter 7.  Retrieved From https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/books/plpyc/contents.htm  
  11. ^ Landrigan, P. J., Schechter, C. B., Lipton, J. M., Fahs, M. C., & Schwartz, J. (2002). Environmental pollutants and disease in American children: estimates of morbidity, mortality, and costs for lead poisoning, asthma, cancer, and developmental disabilities. Environ Health Perspect, 110(7), 721-728.
  12. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (February 9, 2015). Childhood Lead Poisoning Data, Statistics, and Surveillance. National Center for Environmental Health. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/data/index.htm
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