User:Y-S.Ko/Wikipedia course/Language

Linguistics
Part of a series on
Outline History Index
General linguistics Diachronic Lexicography Morphology Phonology Pragmatics Semantics Syntax Syntax–semantics interface Typology
Applied linguistics Acquisition Anthropological Applied Computational Conversation analysis Corpus linguistics Discourse analysis Determinism Distance Documentation Ethnography of communication Ethnomethodology Forensic History of linguistics Interlinguistics Neurolinguistics Philology Philosophy of language Phonetics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Text Translating and interpreting Writing systems
Theoretical frameworks Formalist Constituency Dependency Distributionalism Generative Glossematics Functional Cognitive Construction grammar Functional discourse grammar Grammaticalization Interactional linguistics Prague circle Systemic functional Usage-based Structuralism
Topics Autonomy of syntax Compositionality Conservative and innovative language Descriptivism Etymology Iconicity Internationalism Internet linguistics LGBTQ linguistics Origin of language Orismology Orthography Philosophy of linguistics Prescriptivism Second-language acquisition Theory of language Terminology
Portal
v t e

Subfields
Computational Lexical (lexis, lexicology) Statistical Structural
Topics
Analysis Compositionality Context (language use) Prototype theory Force dynamics Semantic feature Semantic gap Theory of descriptions
Analysis
Latent Computational Machine-learning
Applications
Semantic file system Semantic desktop Semantic matching Semantic parsing Semantic similarity Semantic query Semantic Web Semantic wiki

Grammatical features
Related to nouns Animacy Case Dative construction Dative shift Quirky subject Nominative Comitative Instrumental Classifier Measure word Construct state Countability Count noun Mass noun Collective noun Definiteness Gender Genitive construction Possession Suffixaufnahme (case stacking) Noun class Number Singular Dual Plural Singulative-Collective-Plurative Specificity Universal grinder
Related to verbs Associated motion Clusivity Conjugation Evidentiality Modality Person Telicity Mirativity Tense–aspect–mood Grammatical aspect Lexical aspect (Aktionsart) Mood Tense Voice
General features Affect Boundedness Comparison (degree) Egophoricity Pluractionality (verbal number) Honorifics (politeness) Polarity Reciprocity Reflexive pronoun Reflexive verb
Syntax relationships Argument Transitivity Valency Branching Serial verb construction Traditional grammar Predicate Subject Object Adjunct Predicative
Semantics Contrast Mirativity Thematic relation Agent Patient Topic and Comment Focus Volition Veridicality
Phenomena Agreement Polypersonal agreement Declension Empty category Incorporation Inflection Markedness
v t e

Semiotics

General concepts
Sign relation relational complex Code Confabulation Connotation / Denotation Encoding / Decoding Lexical Modality Representation Salience Semiosis Semiosphere Semiotic theory of Peirce Umwelt Value
Fields
Biosemiotics Cognitive semiotics Computational semiotics Literary semiotics Semiotics of culture Social semiotics
Methods
Commutation test Paradigmatic analysis Syntagmatic analysis
Semioticians
Mikhail Bakhtin Roland Barthes Marcel Danesi John Deely Umberto Eco Paolo Fabbri Gottlob Frege Algirdas Julien Greimas Félix Guattari Stuart Hall Louis Hjelmslev Vyacheslav Ivanov Roman Jakobson Roberta Kevelson Kalevi Kull Juri Lotman Charles W. Morris Charles S. Peirce Susan Petrilli John Poinsot Augusto Ponzio Ferdinand de Saussure Thomas Sebeok Michael Silverstein Eero Tarasti Vladimir Toporov Jakob von Uexküll Victoria, Lady Welby
Related topics
Copenhagen–Tartu school Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School Structuralism Post-structuralism Deconstruction Postmodernism
v t e

Communication

Portal History
General aspects
Communication theory Information Semiotics Language Logic Sociology
Fields
Discourse analysis Linguistics Mass communication Organizational communication Pragmatics Semiotics Sociolinguistics
Disciplines
Public speaking Discourse Culture Argumentation Persuasion Research Rhetoric Media
Categories
Outline
v t e

Linguistic typology
Morphological
Analytic Isolating Synthetic Fusional Agglutinative Polysynthetic Oligosynthetic
Morphosyntactic
Alignment Nominative–accusative Marked nominative Ergative–absolutive Split ergative Symmetrical voice Active–stative Tripartite Nominative–absolutive Direct-inverse Ditransitive/Monotransitive Secundative Indirective Zero-marking Dependent-marking Double-marking Head-marking Null-subject Syntactic pivot Theta role
Word order
VO languages Subject–verb–object Verb–subject–object Verb–object–subject OV languages Subject–object–verb Object–subject–verb Object–verb–subject V1 word order V2 word order OS word order Free word order Time–manner–place Place–manner–time
Lexicon
Color terms Numerals
v t e

Affixes
Affix(Prefix Suffix) Circumfix Duplifix Infix Libfix Interfix Transfix Simulfix Suprafix Disfix
See also:
Null morpheme
v t e

Translation
Part of a series on

Types
Legal Literary Bible Quran Kural Linguistic validation Medical Regulatory Technical Interpretation Cultural Word-for-word Sense-for-sense Homophonic
Theory
Translation studies Skopos theory Translation project Translation criticism Dynamic and formal equivalence Contrastive linguistics Polysystem theory
Technologies
CAT Machine translation Mobile translation Translation management system Dubbing Subtitling Pre-editing Postediting Multimedia translation
Localization
Glocalization Internationalization and localization Language localization Video game localization Dub localization Website localization Software localization
Institutional
Associations Awards Organizations Schools
Related topics
Untranslatability Transcription Transliteration Video relay service (VRS) Telephone interpreting Language barrier Fan translation (of video games) Fansub Fandub Scanlation Journalistic translation Books and magazines on translation Bible translations by language Translated books List of most translated works Translators Kural translations by language
v t e

v t e Philosophy of language
Index of language articles
Philosophers	Confucius Gorgias Cratylus Plato Aristotle Eubulides Diodorus Chrysippus Zhuangzi Xunzi Averroes Ibn Khaldun Hobbes Wilkins Arnauld Lancelot Leibniz Berkeley Herder von Humboldt Mauthner Ricœur de Saussure Frege Boas Tillich Sapir Bloomfield Bergson Vygotsky Wittgenstein Russell Carnap Derrida Whorf Austin Chomsky Gadamer Kripke Ayer Anscombe Hintikka Dummett Davidson Grice Ryle Strawson Quine Putnam Lewis Searle Watzlawick
Theories	Causal theory of reference Contrast theory of meaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Direct reference theory Dramatism Dynamic semantics Expressivism Inquisitive semantics Linguistic determinism Mediated reference theory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevance theory Semantic externalism Semantic holism Situation semantics Structuralism Supposition theory Symbiosism Theological noncognitivism Theory of descriptions (Definite description) Theory of language Unilalianism Verification theory
Concepts	Ambiguity Cant Linguistic relativity Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mention distinction Concept Categories Set Class Family resemblance Intension Logical form Metalanguage Mental representation Modality (natural language) Presupposition Principle of compositionality Property Sign Sense and reference Speech act Symbol Sentence Statement more...
Works	Cratylus (n.d.) Port-Royal Grammar (1660) De Arte Combinatoria (1666) An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language (1668) Alciphron (1732) "On Denoting" (1905) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) Two Dogmas of Empiricism (1951) Philosophical Investigations (1953) Of Grammatology (1967) Naming and Necessity (1980) Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (1982) Limited Inc (1988)
Related articles	Analytic philosophy Philosophy of information Philosophical logic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Scholasticism School of Names Semantics Formal semantics Semiotics
Category Task Force Discussion

Lexical categories and their features

Noun

Verb

Forms

Types

Other

International Phonetic Alphabet (chart)

IPA topics

IPA	International Phonetic Association History of the alphabet Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA) Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS) Journal of the IPA (JIPA)
Special topics	Cursive forms Case variants Obsolete and nonstandard symbols Naming conventions Sinological extensions World Orthography IPA chart for English dialects
Encodings	ASCII encodings SAMPA X-SAMPA Kirshenbaum TIPA Phonetic symbols in Unicode IPA number IPA Braille

Consonants

Pulmonic consonants

Place →	Labial					Coronal										Dorsal					Laryngeal
Manner ↓	Bilabial		Labiodental		Linguolabial		Dental		Alveolar		Postalveolar		Retroflex		Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Pharyngeal/epiglottal		Glottal
Nasal	m̥	m	ɱ̊	ɱ		n̼			n̥	n			ɳ̊	ɳ	ɲ̊	ɲ	ŋ̊	ŋ	ɴ̥	ɴ
Plosive	p	b	p̪	b̪	t̼	d̼			t	d			ʈ	ɖ	c	ɟ	k	ɡ	q	ɢ	ʡ		ʔ
Sibilant affricate									ts	dz	t̠ʃ	d̠ʒ	tʂ	dʐ	tɕ	dʑ
Non-sibilant affricate	pɸ	bβ	p̪f	b̪v			t̪θ	d̪ð	tɹ̝̊	dɹ̝	t̠ɹ̠̊˔	d̠ɹ̠˔			cç	ɟʝ	kx	ɡɣ	qχ	ɢʁ	ʡʜ	ʡʢ	ʔh
Sibilant fricative									s	z	ʃ	ʒ	ʂ	ʐ	ɕ	ʑ
Non-sibilant fricative	ɸ	β	f	v	θ̼	ð̼	θ	ð	θ̠	ð̠	ɹ̠̊˔	ɹ̠˔	ɻ̊˔	ɻ˔	ç	ʝ	x	ɣ	χ	ʁ	ħ	ʕ	h	ɦ
Approximant				ʋ						ɹ				ɻ		j		ɰ						ʔ̞
Tap/flap		ⱱ̟		ⱱ		ɾ̼			ɾ̥	ɾ			ɽ̊	ɽ						ɢ̆		ʡ̆
Trill	ʙ̥	ʙ							r̥	r			ɽ̊r̥	ɽr					ʀ̥	ʀ	ʜ	ʢ
Lateral affricate									tɬ	dɮ			tꞎ	d𝼅	c𝼆	ɟʎ̝	k𝼄	ɡʟ̝
Lateral fricative									ɬ	ɮ			ꞎ	𝼅	𝼆	ʎ̝	𝼄	ʟ̝
Lateral approximant										l				ɭ		ʎ		ʟ		ʟ̠
Lateral tap/flap									ɺ̥	ɺ			𝼈̥	𝼈		ʎ̆		ʟ̆

Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced, to the left are voiceless. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

Non-pulmonic consonants

		BL	LD	D	A	PA	RF	P	V	U	EG
Ejective	Stop	pʼ			tʼ		ʈʼ	cʼ	kʼ	qʼ	ʡʼ
	Affricate		p̪fʼ	t̪θʼ	tsʼ	t̠ʃʼ	tʂʼ	tɕʼ	kxʼ	qχʼ
	Fricative	ɸʼ	fʼ	θʼ	sʼ	ʃʼ	ʂʼ	ɕʼ	xʼ	χʼ
	Lateral affricate				tɬʼ			c𝼆ʼ	k𝼄ʼ	q𝼄ʼ
	Lateral fricative				ɬʼ
Click (top: velar; bottom: uvular)	Tenuis	kʘ qʘ		kǀ qǀ	kǃ qǃ		k𝼊 q𝼊	kǂ qǂ
	Voiced	ɡʘ ɢʘ		ɡǀ ɢǀ	ɡǃ ɢǃ		ɡ𝼊 ɢ𝼊	ɡǂ ɢǂ
	Nasal	ŋʘ ɴʘ		ŋǀ ɴǀ	ŋǃ ɴǃ		ŋ𝼊 ɴ𝼊	ŋǂ ɴǂ	ʞ
	Tenuis lateral				kǁ qǁ
	Voiced lateral				ɡǁ ɢǁ
	Nasal lateral				ŋǁ ɴǁ
Implosive	Voiced	ɓ			ɗ		ᶑ	ʄ	ɠ	ʛ
Implosive	Voiceless	ɓ̥			ɗ̥		ᶑ̊	ʄ̊	ɠ̊	ʛ̥

Co-articulated consonants

Labial–alveolar

Labial–retroflex

Labial–velar

Fricative/approximant

ɥ̊

Labial–palatal

Labial–velar

Sj-sound (variable)

Lateral approximant

Velarized alveolar

Labial–velar

Labial–alveolar

Other	Nasal labial–velar approximant [w̃] Nasal palatal approximant [j̃] Voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop [t̪ʙ̥] Voiceless nasal glottal approximant [h̃]

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i y	ɨ ʉ	ɯ u
Near-close	ɪ ʏ		ʊ
Close-mid	e ø	ɘ ɵ	ɤ o
Mid	e̞ ø̞	ə	ɤ̞ o̞
Open-mid	ɛ œ	ɜ ɞ	ʌ ɔ
Near-open	æ	ɐ
Open	a ɶ	ä	ɑ ɒ

Legend: unrounded • rounded

Formal semantics (natural language)

Central concepts

Topics

Areas

Phenomena

Formalism

Formal systems	Alternative semantics Categorial grammar Combinatory categorial grammar Discourse representation theory (DRT) Dynamic semantics Generative grammar Glue semantics Inquisitive semantics Intensional logic Lambda calculus Mereology Montague grammar Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT) Situation semantics Supervaluationism Type theory TTR
Concepts	Autonomy of syntax Context set Continuation Conversational scoreboard Downward entailing Existential closure Function application Meaning postulate Monads Plural quantification Possible world Quantifier raising Quantization Question under discussion Semantic parsing Squiggle operator Strawson entailment Strict conditional Type shifter Universal grinder

Chomsky hierarchy	Grammars	Languages	Abstract machines
Type-0 — Type-1 — — — — — Type-2 — — Type-3 — —	Unrestricted (no common name) Context-sensitive Positive range concatenation Indexed — Linear context-free rewriting systems Tree-adjoining Context-free Deterministic context-free Visibly pushdown Regular — Non-recursive	Recursively enumerable Decidable Context-sensitive Positive range concatenation^* Indexed^* — Linear context-free rewriting language Tree-adjoining Context-free Deterministic context-free Visibly pushdown Regular Star-free Finite	Turing machine Decider Linear-bounded PTIME Turing Machine Nested stack Thread automaton restricted Tree stack automaton Embedded pushdown Nondeterministic pushdown Deterministic pushdown Visibly pushdown Finite Counter-free (with aperiodic finite monoid) Acyclic finite

Each category of languages, except those marked by a ^*, is a proper subset of the category directly above it. Any language in each category is generated by a grammar and by an automaton in the category in the same line.

v t e Psycholinguistics
General	Psycholinguistics Motivation in second-language learning
Key concepts	Anxiety Aptitude Cognition Dyslexia Dysgraphia Goal-setting theory Learning styles Motivation in second-language learning Self-efficacy Self-regulation Willingness to communicate Working memory
Notable researchers	Max Coltheart Martha Crago Kata Csizér Zoltán Dörnyei Nick Ellis Judit Kormos James McClelland Sarah Mercer
Journals	Applied Psycholinguistics

Natural language processing

General terms

Text analysis

Text segmentation	Compound-term processing Lemmatisation Lexical analysis Text chunking Stemming Sentence segmentation Word segmentation

Automatic summarization

Machine translation

Distributional semantics models

Language resources,
datasets and corpora

Types and standards	Corpus linguistics Lexical resource Linguistic Linked Open Data Machine-readable dictionary Parallel text PropBank Semantic network Simple Knowledge Organization System Speech corpus Text corpus Thesaurus (information retrieval) Treebank Universal Dependencies
Data	BabelNet Bank of English DBpedia FrameNet Google Ngram Viewer UBY WordNet Wikidata

Automatic identification
and data capture

Topic model

Computer-assisted
reviewing

Natural language
user interface

v t e Writing systems
Index of language articles
Overview	Language History of writing History of the alphabet Graphemes Scripts in Unicode
Lists	Writing systems Languages by writing system / by first written account Ancient languages corpuses by size Undeciphered writing systems Creators of writing systems
Types	Abjads Abugidas Alphabets Featural Ideogrammic Logographic Numeral Phonogrammic Pictographic Semi-syllabaries Shorthand Syllabaries
Current examples	Arabic Canadian syllabics Chinese Devanagari Hangul Kana Latin Mongolian
Related topics	In Africa In Southeast Asia

v t e Lexicology
Major terms	Lexical item Lexicon Lexis Word
Elements	Chereme Glyphs Grapheme Lemma Lexeme Morpheme Phoneme Seme Sememe
Semantic relations	Antonymy Hypernymy and hyponymy Meronymy and holonymy Idiom Lexical semantics Semantic network Synonym Troponymy
Functions	Function word Headword
Fields	Controlled vocabulary English lexicology and lexicography International scientific vocabulary Lexicographic error Lexicographic information cost Linguistic prescription Morphology Specialized lexicography
Linguistics portal

v t e Lexicography
Types of reference works	Dictionary Glossary Lexicon Phrase book Thesaurus
Types of dictionaries	Advanced learner's Anagram Bilingual Biographical Conceptual Defining vocabulary Electronic Encyclopedic Etymological Explanatory Historical Idiom Language-for-specific-purposes Machine-readable Medical Monolingual learner's Multi-field Picture Reverse Rhyming Rime Single-field Specialized Spelling dictionary Sub-field Visual
Other	International scientific vocabulary List of lexicographers List of online dictionaries
Linguistics portal

Personal names and anthroponymy

Personal name

By sequence

By trait

By life situation

Pseudonyms (list)

Art name
Bugō
Nicknames
- list
- Hypocorism
- Monarchs
Nom de guerre
Pen name
- Heteronym
Ring name
Shikona
Stage name
- List
- Mononyms
Username

By culture
Surnames by country

East Asian

Amami
Chinese
- Courtesy
- Art
- Generation
- Titles
Japanese
Korean
Manchu
Okinawan
Indigenous Taiwanese
Vietnamese

Northern Asia
and Central Asia

Muslim world
and Western Asia

Oceania

Sub-Saharan Africa

Europe, North America
and Australasia

Baltic	Latvian Lithuanian
Celtic	Cornish Irish Manx Scottish Welsh
Germanic	Dutch English American African-American Canadian Hongkongese German Gothic Icelandic Scandinavian Swedish
Romance	Catalan French Italian Occitan Portuguese Roman Praenomen Nomen Cognomen Agnomen Romanian Spanish Hispanic America
Slavic	Bulgarian Croatian Czech Eastern Slavic Belarusian Russian Ukrainian Kashubian Macedonian Polish Serbian Slovak Suffixes

Indosphere (South Asia
and Southeast Asia)

By religion

Manners of address
List
of authority/of honour

Styles	Honorific Diplomatic Imperial, royal, and noble Judiciary Religious Ecclesiastical Pre-nominal letters Suffix Emeritus Post-nominal letters Academic Orders, decorations, and medals
Titles	Academic Imperial, royal and noble Chivalric Courtesy False Hereditary Subsidiary Substantive Military Professional Academic Educational Honorary Business Diplomatic Judicial Religious Ecclesiastical Papal

Related traditions

Acronym
Anonymity
Anthropomorphism
- Personification
  - National
Call sign
Deadnaming
Endonym and exonym
Family
Galton–Watson process
Legal name
- Name change
List
- Given
- Surname
Namesake
Naming taboo
Nomenclature
Nomen nescio
Misnomer
Onomastics
-onym
Personal identity
- Identifier
Proper name
Signature
- Monogram
  - Royal cypher
- Khelrtva
- Signum manus
- Tughra
Surnames by country

Category:Lists of names

Countries and languages lists

Countries

By official languages	Countries by the number of recognized official languages Arabic Chinese Dutch/Afrikaans English French German Hindustani Italian Malay Persian Portuguese Romanian Russian Spanish Tamil
Endonyms and exonyms	Countries and capitals in native languages Country names in various languages A–C D–I J–P Q–Z Cambodia China Germany Iceland India Indonesia Japan Korea Kosovo Myanmar Singapore Sri Lanka Vietnam Languages of the European Union

Languages

By continent and subregion	Africa Americas North America Caribbean South America Asia East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Europe Oceania Melanesia Micronesia Polynesia
By country	Official languages by country and territory Countries by the number of recognized official languages Number of languages
By population	By number of native speakers Europe By number of total speakers Languages in censuses
By language family	Language families List of Indo-European languages List of Mongolic languages List of Turkic languages List of Uralic languages
Language-based geopolitical organizations	Arab League (Arabic) Dutch Language Union (Dutch) Commonwealth of Nations (English) Latin Union (Romance languages) Three Linguistic Spaces Francophonie (French) Community of Portuguese Language Countries Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa (Portuguese) Hispanidad (Spanish) Organization of Turkic States (Turkic languages) International Organization of Turkic Culture (Turkic languages)
See also	Lists of languages Category:Languages

v t e Communication studies
History Outline
Topics and terminology	Biocommunication Broadcasting Communication Computer-mediated communication Conversation History of communication Information Intercultural Interpersonal Intrapersonal Journalism Mass media Meaning Media Media ecology Meta-communication Models of communication New media Nonverbal communication Nonviolent communication Propaganda Public relations Reading Speech Symbol list Telecommunications Text and conversation theory Writing
Subfields	Closed-loop Communication design Communication theory Communicology Crisis Climate Cross-cultural Developmental Discourse analysis Environmental Global Health International Mass Media studies Mediated cross-border Organizational Political Risk Science Technical Visual
Scholars	Adorno Barthes Bateson Benjamin Burke Castells Chomsky Craig Ellul Fisher Flusser Gasset Gerbner Goffman Habermas Horkheimer Huxley Innis Jakobson Janis Johnson Kincaid Lippman Luhmann Marcuse McLuhan Mead Morgan Ong Packard Peirce Postman Quebral Richards Rogers Schramm Shannon Tankard Tannen Wertheimer
Category

See also