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  • ====References=== * {{R:sog:Gharib|rγʾh|section=8471|page=341a}}

𐭯‎ Pahlavi scripts

Heading 3

• An Old Zand-Pahlavi Glossary (1867)
  • https://books.google.com/books?id=pD3qCdVlt3gC&pg=RA1-PA43
• Inscription of Hajiabad
  • (tracing) https://archive.org/details/a-manual-of-pahlavi-1-henrik-samuel-nyberg/A%20MANUAL%20OF%20PAHLAVI%201%20-%20HENRIK%20SAMUEL%20NYBERG/page/n171/mode/1up
  • (Description/Transliteration/Transcription/Translation) https://sites.uci.edu/sasanika/sapur-is-inscription-hajjiabad-sh/
  • (Description) https://iranicaonline.org/articles/hajiabad-i-inscriptions

Letters

Book Pahlavi used 21 joining letters:

Name	Image	Phones (IPA; Middle Persian)	Transliteration
Aleph		[a], [aː]	'
Beth		[b], [w]	b
Gimel		[ɡ], [j]	g
Daleth		[d], [j]	d
He		[h]	h
Waw-Ayin-Resh		[w], [o(ː)], [u(ː)], [∅], [r], [ʕ]	w
Zayin		[z]	z
Heth		[h], [x]	ḥ
Teth	—	y[tˤ]	ṭ
Yodh		[j], [e(ː)], [i(ː)], [d̠͡ʒ]	y
Kaph		[k], [ɡ]	k
Lamedh		[l], [r]	l
Mem-Qoph		[m], [q]	m
Nun		[n]	n
Samekh		[s], [h]	s
Pe		[p], [b], [f]	p
Sadhe	File:Book Pahlavi script - Q.svg	[t̠͡ʃ], [d̠͡ʒ], [z]	ṣ
Shin		[ʃ]	ś/š
Taw		[t], [d]	t

МОНГ. Cyrl αβ

When capitalizing, it is mostly the practice in Mongolian to only do so with the first word of names, such as (¿/including?) titles and organizations.

ᠦᠦMONG. Multigraphs

• As in ᠣ/ᠣᠣ/ᠣᠣ᠎ᠠ^⟨?⟩ o/oo^?/oo‑a (оо oo) 'powder' or ᠣᠣ/ᠠᠭᠤᠤ [uu/aγuu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 5) (help) (агуу aguu) 'vast, great[ly], large', etc.

• 
  • It can sometimes combine with a connected suffix before it, creating forms such as bišüü or bišiuu in place of biši uu.
  • It can sometimes combine with a connected suffix before it, creating forms such as yabumuu, yabubuu, or bišiuu, in place of yabumui‑uu, yabuba‑uu, or busu uu.
  • It can sometimes combine with a connected suffix before it, creating forms such as yabumuu (from yabu+mui+uu), yabubuu (from yabu+ba+uu), or ‑luu (from ‑la+uu).

• <!- As in ᠬᠡᠦᠬᠡᠳ keüked (хүүхэд khüükhed). ->

• <!- As in ᠴᠢᠨᠤ᠎ᠠ činu-a / чоно chono. ->

• <!- As in ᠢᠷᠦᠦ᠎ᠠ iruu-a / ёр yor. ->

• <!- As in ᠲᠠᠤᠯᠠᠶ taulay / туулай tuulai. ->

ᠮᠠ᠋GALIG αβ, chars.

ALPHABET

(...)

CHARS.

Galik characters

Letters	Contextual forms			Transliteration				IPA
	Initial	Medial	Final	Latin	Mong. Cyrillic	Sanskrit (Deva)	Tibetan
ᠧ	ᠧ‍	‍ᠧ‍	‍ᠧ	ē/é	[[[Ye (Cyrillic)|е]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help)	ए	ཨེ	/e/
ᠸ	ᠸ‍	‍ᠸ‍	‍ᠸ	w/v	[[[Ve (Cyrillic)|в]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help)	व	ཝ	/w/
ᠹ	ᠹ‍	‍ᠹ‍	‍ᠹ	f	[[[Ef (Cyrillic)|ф]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help)	फ	ཕ	/f/
ᠺ	ᠺ‍	‍ᠺ‍	‍ᠺ	g/k	[[[Ka (Cyrillic)|к]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help)	Pᢉᠠ=क=ཀ Pᠺᠠ=ग=ག	ག	/k/
ᠻ	ᠻ‍	‍ᠻ‍	‍ᠻ	k/kh	[к] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)	ख	ཁ	/kʰ/
ᠼ	ᠼ‍	‍ᠼ‍	‍ᠼ	c	[[[Tse (Cyrillic)|ц]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 18) (help)	छ	ཚ	/t͡s/
ᠽ	ᠽ‍	‍ᠽ‍	‍ᠽ	z	[[[Ze (Cyrillic)|з]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help)	PᠽᠠZA=च=ཙ PᢋᠠCA=ज=ཛ	ཙ ཛ	/d͡z/
ᠾ	ᠾ‍	‍ᠾ‍	‍ᠾ	h	[х] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)	ह	ཧ	/h/
ᠿ	ᠿ‍	—	—	ž	[ж] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)		ཞ	/ʐ/, /ɻ/
ᡀ	ᡀ‍	‍ᡀ‍	—	lh	[лх] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)		ལྷ	/ɬ/
ᡁ	ᡁ‍	—	—	zh	[з] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)			/d͡ʐ/
ᡂ	ᡂ‍	—	—	ch	[ч] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)		ཋ	/t͡ʂ/

MIX

... Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (ᠽdz ᠹf ᠾvh/ᡁh/ᡀlh ᠻk ᠫp ᠼtz ᠿzh)(as listed below), along with (ᠧvw/ᠸw). (Xᠺ,ᡂX)

Galig alphabet <ᠭᠠᠯᠢᠭ
ᠦᠰᠦᠭ> [γaliγ üsüg] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) from Ka-lekah, a compound of the first syllable ka of the Nagari alphabet, and the Sanskrit word for 'writing'.

Finals

Final forms: https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17115r-aligali-finals.pdf

h

Transcribes Chakhar /h/[x]

Used when transcribing foreign words (originally for h in Tibetan ཧ /ha/, ྷ /-ha/; Sanskrit ह /ha/).

Galik letter; derived from Tibetan preceded by an "Aleph" for initial form.

BabelStone

http://babelstone.co.uk/Mongolian/Resources.html

• Vowels: 85 / 62–63.
• 69, 86–87, 89, 91, 96, 102, 144–145, 153–155,
  • 61–68 Ranjana, Sanskrit, Manchu, Mongol.
  • 125–135 StackedTibetan, Manchu, Mongol.
  • 189–194 Sanskrit, Manchu, Mongol.
  • 241–255 Tibetan, Manchu, Mongol.
• 220, 244–249, 251, 254–255

Galik alphabet#Letters

Chinese-specific consonants
Mongol­ian	Roman­ization	Chi­nese
ᠿ‍	ž	r[i]
ᡁᠢ	zhi	zhi
ᡂᠢ	chi	chī

日 ri • zhi • 蚩 chī

OUGR αβ

https://keyboard.cool/db/old-uyghur/old-uyghur-combining-dot-above

ᡠMANCHU #αβ

Main

Ref

https://archive.org/details/cu31924023341112/page/n11/mode/1up

Li2010 Manchu script pages

Li2010 Sibe script pages

Ba (Mongolic)#Manchu language

C-V syllables
ba	be	bi	bo	bu	Transliteration
ᠪᠠ	ᠪᡝ	ᠪᡳ	ᠪᠣ	ᠪᡠ	Alone
ᠪᠠ‍	ᠪᡝ‍	ᠪᡳ‍	ᠪᠣ‍	ᠪᡠ‍	Initial
‍ᠪᠠ‍	‍ᠪᡝ‍	‍ᠪᡳ‍	‍ᠪᠣ‍	‍ᠪᡠ‍	Medial
‍ᠪᠠ	‍ᠪᡝ	‍ᠪᡳ	‍ᠪᠣ	‍ᠪᡠ	Final

Qa (Mongolic)#Manchu language

C-V syllables
ka	ke	ki	ko	kū	Transliteration
ᡴᠠ	ᡴᡝ	ᡴᡳ	ᡴᠣ	ᡴᡡ	Alone
ᡴᠠ‍	ᡴᡝ‍	ᡴᡳ‍	ᡴᠣ‍	ᡴᡡ‍	Initial
‍ᡴᠠ‍	‍ᡴᡝ‍	‍ᡴᡳ‍	‍ᡴᠣ‍	‍ᡴᡡ‍	Medial
‍ᡴᠠ	‍ᡴᡝ	‍ᡴᡳ	‍ᡴᠣ	‍ᡴᡡ	Final

Syllable-final
k	Transliteration
‍ᡴ᠋‍	Medial

ᡐ‍TODO αβ

1

• Bobrovnikov1849 (UN-used)
• Shagdarsueren2001 (UN-used)

ᡒ[tʃ]

1. As in ᡒᡄᡎ / ᡔᡄᡎ ceq 'dot'.
2. As in ᡆᡒᡅ oči^? / ᡆᡃᡔᡅ ōci 'calyx, scobs / jaw, jowl '.

ᠴ[dz-]?

1. As in ᠴᠠᡏ zam 'way, road'.

Other

1. ᠴᡈᡉᠨ zöün 'left, east'.

MONG. SCRIPT #History

History + Infobox

1204 – (Mongolia)

1941 (decree on adoption of Cyrillic script)

– 1946 (Replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet in Mongolia)

---

– 1931 (Buryats)

1937 – (Buryat Cyrillic, Buryat ASSR)

1648 – (Clear Script)

---

Copyists of Buddhist texts emulated the narrow horizontal page formats of South Asian and Tibetan texts.

Palm-leaf manuscripts.

MONG. SCRIPT #Overview

#Alphabetical orders

• In school textbooks: a, e, i, o, u, ö, ü, na, ba, ha/he, ga/ge, ja, ya, ta, da, ma, cha, ra, sa, sha, la, va, fa/pa, za, tsa, ka, lha, and final ng.
• ???: a, e, i, o/u, ö/ü, n, (ng), q, [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help), b, p, s, š, t/d, l, m, č, ǰ/y, k/g, (k), r, v, h.
• Other !!!modern orderings that apply to specific dictionaries!!! also exist.
• The letters q and k became neighbors under Manchu influence.

Luvsandorj2008

• https://uas.ff.cuni.cz/veda-a-vyzkum/mongolica-pragensia/
  • https://uas.ff.cuni.cz/mp-online-versions/
    • https://uas.ff.cuni.cz/wp-content/uploads/sites/63/2019/05/MongolicaPragensia08-1.pdf
• https://www.academia.edu/38060081

#Consonant clusters

• , or in loanwords such as Old Uighur ᠭᠢᠷ kir/gir or ᠬᠬᠢᠷ^⟨?⟩ kkir/gkir (хир khir) 'dirt'.
  • (kir 'dirt')
  • (kkir = kir)
  • (kkir 'filth')
  • 'dirt'
  • <ggir → gir>

#Compound names

ᠠᠯᠲᠠᠨᠠ᠋ᠭᠤᠯᠠ [Altan'aγula] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help)

ᠪᠠᠲᠤᠠ᠋ᠭᠤᠯᠠ [Batu'aγula] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 7) (help)

ᠠᠯᠳᠠᠨ᠋ ᠤᠳᠤ → ᠠᠯᠳᠠᠨ᠋᠊᠋ᠤ᠋ᠳᠤ

MONG. SCRIPT #Letters

Isolates

Jiruken-ü tolta commentary by Danjindagba: ᠱᠠ ᠱᠡ ᠱᠢ ᠱᠣ᠋ ᠱᠤ᠋ ᠱᠥ᠋ ᠱᠦ᠋

Particles

• Lessing1960❶ • Poppe1974❷ • Grønbech1993❸ • Janhunen2006❹ • Janhunen2012❺ • Bawden2013❻ • Sanders2015❼
  • Janhunen2012: Vowel harmony & particles

BEFORE? ("{{Refn|name=Lessing1960|") OR AFTER? ("|name=Lessing1960}}")

"When the interrogative particle u is added , bui becomes buyu , and thus coincides with the emphatic form buyu ."❸

	⋱⋱⋱⋱⋱ bold = old ⋱⋱⋱⋱⋱ bold+underlined = new ⋱⋱⋱⋱⋱
A E	Vocative particle a or a‑a, used for addressing people (as in 'oh, master!).❷❸ ‑a/‑e = "the old dative suffix"❷ "A" interjection – wrongly called a vocative suffix❷ Of like function ‑a.❸ Vocative (аа/ээ aa/ee) postclitic particle ❺ "ЭЭ 1.1. (final vocative particle) hey!, I say!, эгч~ I say, sister! 2. (final corroborative particle) ЭЭ II. (~дээ) oh!, ~балар (~лүд, ~харла) damn!, ~тоогүйдээ (~ламындоодох, ~халаг, ~чааваас) oh my!, oh dear!, what a pity!"❻
Mongolian script multigraphs	As in ᠠᠢ ai (ай ai) 'category; sound, noise'; vocative particle used for addressing people (as in 'oh, master!), or a pity/sympathy/worry-expressing interjection particle.❶❸ Negating particle <ᠪᠤᠤ>.❹ The concessive, topicalization, contrastive use particle <ᠪᠤᠤ>.❹ buu prohibitive particle❸
ᠪᠡᠷ B	The nominative/emphatic/topicalization particle ᠪᠡᠷ ber is graphically identical with ‑bar/‑ber, but can by contast appear after a word stem ending in a consonant.❷❸❹ The particle <ᠪᠠ> is similar in function to <ᠪᠤᠤ>.❹ ᠪᠠ ba 'and; we'❸ As in ᠪᠢ bi (би bi) 'I'.❼
Ö Ü K G	As in the reinforcing/strengthening (emphatic) kü❸ ᠭᠦ⟨?⟩ kü (хүү khüü) particle,❶❷❸
G	There are two harmonic variants of the particle ᠰᠢᠭ᠋⟨?⟩/ᠰᠢᠭ⟨?⟩ [siγ/sig] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) (шиг shig) 'similar to, similarly, like' etc. The choice between a final [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) or g is dependent on whether it occurs after a masculine or a feminine word, respectively.❶❹❺
ᠯᠠ L	As in the intensifying/generalizing ⟨ᠯᠠ⟩ la/le particle (л l; written ᠡᠯᠡ ele in its older form), or ᠯᠠ la (лаа(н) laa(n)) 'candle'.❶❷ лаа 'watt; candle'.❼ ele affirmative particle❸ Generalizing particle <ᠡᠯᠡ>.❹
ᠳᠠ T D	As in the second person singular/plural pronoun ᠲᠠ ta (та ta) 'you' (plural or polite),❶❷❼ or the colloquial, affirmative, and strengthening/intensifying (emphatic) ⟨ᠳᠠ and ᠳ᠋ᠠ⟩ da/de (даа/дээ/доо/дөө daa/dee/doo/döö) particle used after the predicate, and instead of ǰ‑a.❶❷❺⓫ "emphatic particle" ❸??, "intensifying suffix added to nouns" ❸?? vuizan e da // üdzne dee // (affirmative da/dee) // 'we shall see' ❺ "ДАА II . (affirmative final particle)"❻
ᠴᠣ C	As in the strengthening/intensifying (emphatic) and concessive ⟨ᠴᠤ⟩ ču/čü (ч ch) 'also, too, even, as for, as well as; neither, nor' particle,❶❷❸ ᠴᠣᠭᠤ/ᠴᠣ [čoγu/čo] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) (цоо tsoo) 'through and through, completely',❶ or ᠼᠦ᠋/ᠴᠦ cü/čü (цүү tsüü) 'spike, bolt'.❶ As in the second person singular pronoun ᠴᠢ či (чи chi) 'thou' (singular 'you' to a child or close friend).❼ The colloquial particle <ᠴᠣ> is similar in function to <ᠪᠤᠤ>.❹
ᠵᠠ J	As in the interjection ᠵᠠ ǰa (заа zaa) 'all right, yes, very good, well!, now then'.❶
ᠵ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩ J	⟨⟩ ǰa Potentiality particle ⟨⟩.❹ As in ǰ‑a (за/заа za/zaa) 'well, so, allright';❷❼⓫❻ emphatic final;❸ ǰ‑a particle expressing presumption, probability,❻ potentiality ⟨⟩,❹ or hope;❶ doubt-expressing ǰ‑a particle ('perhaps, maybe'),❷ and corroborative ǰ‑e particle. ‑ǰa 'indeed, to be sure'.❸ = p.46. ‑ǰa emphatic particle; 'certainly, surely'.❸ = p.46. As in the strengthening (emphatic) ǰa particle, which can be Translated as 'indeed, to be sure, certainly'.❸

O/0

n	[γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) (ɣ)	d	y
‍ᠨ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of NA w/ FVS1 (correctly dotted as of Baiti 5.52/5.53; incorrectly undotted as of Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial NA w/o it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->	‍ᠭ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of GA w/ FVS1 (correctly dotted as of Baiti 5.52/5.53; incorrectly undotted as of Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial GA w/o it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->	‍ᠳ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of DA w/ FVS1 (correctly lamedh-shaped as of Baiti 5.52/5.53, and Noto 2.001/2.003; incorrectly belly-tooth-shaped as of Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial DA w/o it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->	‍ᠶ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of YA w/ FVS1 (correctly with upturn ¿as of Baiti 5.52/5.53?; incorrectly without upturn as of Baiti 5.52/5.53, Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial YA w/o it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->
‍ᠨ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of NA w/o FVS1 (correctly undotted as of Baiti 5.52/5.53; incorrectly dotted as of Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial NA w/ it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->	‍ᠭ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of GA w/o FVS1 (correctly undotted as of Baiti 5.52/5.53; incorrectly dotted as of Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial GA w/ it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->	‍ᠳ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of DA w/o FVS1 (correctly belly-tooth-shaped as of Baiti 5.52/5.53, and Noto 2.001/2.003; incorrectly lamedh-shaped as of Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial DA w/ it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->	‍ᠶ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩<!- This medial presentation form of YA w/o FVS1 (correctly without upturn as of Baiti 5.52/5.53; incorrectly with upturn as of Noto 1.04/2.001/2.003) may switch form with that of medial YA w/ it, depending on the typeface. See UTR #54, which lists preliminarily correct variant forms that apply to Unicode 15.1. ->	Medial (diphthongs)
‍ᠨ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	‍ᠭ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	‍ᠳ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	‍ᠶ᠋‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩
‍ᠨ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	‍ᠭ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	‍ᠳ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	‍ᠶ‍⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	Medial (diphthongs)

A to WA

A

• Old Mongolian */a/;

E

• Old Mongolian */e/;

EE

• Derived from Old Uyghur bet,

I

• Old Mongolian */i/;
• Today, often absorbed into a preceding syllable when at the end of a word.

O

• Old Mongolian */o/;

U

• Old Mongolian */u/;

Ö

• Old Mongolian */ø/;
• ----

• The syllable-initial medial form ‍ᠥ᠋‍ is also used in non-initial syllables in proper name compounds, as well as in loanwords.

Ü

• Old Mongolian */y/;
• ----

• The syllable-initial medial form ‍ᠦ᠋‍ is also used in non-initial syllables in proper name compounds, as well as in loanwords.

• For proper name compound words, the forms used in initial syllables are retained at the beginning of second part of the compound ⟨‍ᠦ᠌‍/‍ᠦ᠋‍⟩. The form ‍ᠦ᠋‍ can also be used elsewhere in loanwords.

N

Distinction from other tooth-shaped letters by position in syllable sequence.

B

• SEE Svantesson2005
  • For Classical Mongolian, Latin v is used only for transcribing words of foreign origin, so most в (v) in Mongolian Cyrillic correspond to б (b) in Classical Mongolian.

Q

• Distinction from other tooth-shaped letters by position in syllable sequence.

Č

WRITTEN MONGOL

As a general rule, the Khalkha palatal stops/affricates (c j) remain before a historical *i but becomes dental sibilant affricates (dz tz) before other vowels.

ᠴ c (Proto-Mongolic *c); ᠵ‍/‍ᠵ‍ j/cz (Proto-Mongolic *j).

PROTO-MONGOL PHONEMES for PALATIZATION DIALECTS (KHALKHA & CHAKHAR)

Importantly, palatal breaking had a reverse effect on the original palatal stops (sibilant affricates) *c *j, which in the palatalization dialects underwent dentalization before vowels other than *i, e.g. *cag ‘time’ > tsag, *jam ‘road’ > dzam. Before *i, including cases of breaking, the segments *c *j remain phonetically palatal, but in the synchronic system they have become incorporated into the palatalized series, e.g. *cida- ‘to be able’ > *cyada- > c(y)ad-, *jira (: *jira/n) ‘sixty’ > *jyara- > j(y)ar.

R

• Transcribed words of foreign origin usually get a vowel prepended (prothesis); transcribing Русь (Russia) results in ᠣᠷᠤᠰ Oros/Orus. (PROTHETIC O)

Loanwords starting with R are "usually pronounced with an added initial vowel", as in ᠣᠷᠤᠰ.

W

<!- As in ᠬᠤᠸᠷᠠᠭ/ᠬᠤᠸ᠋ᠷᠠᠭ [quvraγ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 6) (help)[2][3] or ᠬᠤᠸᠠᠷᠠᠭ [quvaraγ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 7) (help) 'clergy' [S. sangha; Tib. dge 'dun]. -> (хувраг khuvrag, 僧衆, 仏僧衆, monk, clergy)

⟨ᠬᠤᠸᠠᠷᠠᠭ⟩ 'clergy'.

དགེ་འདུན་ dge 'dun [gendyn] 'Buddhist community'.

MONG. SCRIPT #Components

Components

འཇར་ཐིག་ 'jar thig ??

Components 2

Text(?)	Names	'Transl'	Mongolian English Dictionary
᠊ᠡ‍	'[...]' / өргөс örgös / ᠥᠷᠭᠡᠰᠦ örgesü	'thorn'	ᠳᠤᠰᠤᠯ dusul ДУСАЛ 'dots', specifically the diacritic for the letter transcribed as [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help).ТИТЭМ (crown!) ... АЦАГ (tooth!) ... ШУД (tooth!) ... НУРУУ back, backbone, spine. The central vertical stroke. СҮҮЛ (tail!) ... ОРХИЦ the separate long final stroke forming a and e. ЦАЦЛАГА the separate long final stroke forming a and e. II; sprinkling, dusting. ШИЛБЭ shin, shin-bones, bones of the lower leg, the "long tooth" in letters such as j and y (also урт шуд). шулуун (straight!) ... урт шуд "long tooth". этгэр turned up, bent upwards. матгар curved, bent. өргөс 1.(~хэргэс) barb, thorn, spine, splinter. өргөстей төмөр утас barbed wire. гогцоо1. loop. хөнхөр hollow eyed and jutted, browed. НУМ the bow-like stroke in letters such as b, k. ГЭДЭС belly, stomach. The loop or belly in letters such as o, b, t. АР back (n.). арын ~ hind-gut (insect). ЗАРТИГ The hook or loop on letters such as f,p. ГЭЗЭГ pigtail, queue; the upward or downward hooks for the letters l and m. ЭВЭР horn, antler; the upward or downward hooks for the letters l and m. ДООШ ХАРСАН ЭВЭР downward hook. ДЭЭШ ХАРСАН ЭВЭР upward hook. ЗАВЖ corners of the mouth / the wedge-shaped stroke for the letter s. СЭРЭЭ 1.1.fork. АЦ (fork!) ... СОЁО 1.tusk, fang, caninetooth, eyetooth. ---- ИНХЛЭГ "бага ~"; the final detached n, "их ~" the ligature ng. АНГАРХАЙ gap, crevice, opening. БИТҮҮ closed. БИТУУ ҮСЭГ closed letters such as b???? ШАВЖ the left-facing hook at the foot of certain letters such as о or u in final position in Mongol script. АГШЛАГА the back-series letter g. ЗАДГАЙ open, exposed. "~ ҮЗЭГ" open letters of Mongol Script such as a, e.
᠊᠊	'[...]' / гол gol / ᠭᠣᠤᠯ [γoul] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)	'axle, fuse, river'
ᠵ‍	'[...]' / эмийн тэмдэг emiin temdeg / ᠡᠮ ᠦᠨ ᠲᠡᠮᠳᠡᠭ em‑ün temdeg
ᠶ‍	'[...]' / дээш эвэртэй шилбэ deesh evertei shilbe / ᠳᠡᠭᠡᠭᠰᠢ ᠡᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠢ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ degegsi ebertei silbi	'horns above'
ᠸ‍	'[...]' / доош эвэртэй шилбэ doosh evertei shilbe / ᠳᠣᠭᠤᠭᠰᠢ ᠡᠪᠡᠷᠲᠦ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ [doγuγsi ebertü silbi] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help)	'horns down'
	'[...]' / этгэр шилбэ etger shilbe / ᠡᠲᠡᠭᠡᠷ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ eteger silbi
ᠶ‍	'[...]' / эртгэр шилбэ ertger shilbe / ᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠡᠷ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ erteger silbi	'spines'
	'[...]' / ятгар шилбэ yatgar shilbe / ᠶᠠᠲᠤᠭᠠᠷ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ [yatuγar silbi] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 5) (help)	'persuasive shin'
ᠷ‍	'[...]' / эрвээлжит шилбэ erveeljit shilbe / ᠡᠷᠪᠡᠭᠡᠯᠵᠢᠨ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ erbegelǰin silbi
‍᠊ᠣ‍	'[...]' / битүү bitüü / ᠪᠢᠲᠡᠭᠦ bitegü	'closure'
	'[...]' / гогцоо gogtsoo / ᠭᠣᠭᠴᠤᠭᠠ [γoγčuγa] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help)	'hanger, turban'
‍ᠳ‍	'[...]' / ходоод khodood / ᠬᠣᠳᠤᠭᠤᠳᠤ [qoduγudu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 5) (help)	'stomach, inside'
‍ᠳ	'[...]' / бага ходоод baga khodood / ᠪᠠᠭᠠ ᠬᠣᠳᠤᠭᠤᠳᠤ [baγa qoduγudu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help)	'small stomach'
ᠲ‍	'[...]' / их ходоод ikh khodood / ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠬᠣᠳᠤᠭᠤᠳᠤ [yeke qoduγudu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 10) (help)	'great stomach'
‍᠊ᠮ‍	'[...]' / доош эвэр doosh ever / ᠳᠣᠭᠤᠭᠰᠢ ᠡᠪᠡᠷ [doγuγsi eber] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help)🚩	'horn down'
‍᠊ᠯ‍	'[...]' / дээш эвэр deesh ever / ᠳᠡᠭᠡᠭᠰᠢ ᠡᠪᠡᠷ degegsi eber🚩	'horn up?'
ᠬ	'[...]' / хагархай толгой khagarkhai tolgoi / ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠷᠬᠠᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠤᠭᠠᠢ [qaγarqai toluγai] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help)	'broken head'
	'[...]' / ангархай толгой angarkhai tolgoi / ᠠᠩᠠᠷᠬᠠᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠤᠭᠠᠢ [angarqai toluγai] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 14) (help)	'slit head'
‍᠊ᠹ‍	Flaglet, tuft / зартиг zartig / ᠵᠠᠷᠲᠢᠭ [ǰartiγ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 6) (help) / Tibetan: འཇར་ཋིག།??, Wylie: 'jar-thig
‍ᠽ‍
‍ᠢ	'[...]' / агсвар agsvar / ᠠᠭᠰᠠᠪᠤᠷ [aγsabur] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 2) (help)
‍ᠵ‍	'[...]' / эрүү erüü / ᠡᠷᠡᠦ ereü	'chin, jaw'
‍ᠴ‍
‍᠊ᠰ‍	'[...]' / арын са aryn sa / ᠠᠷᠤ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠰᠠ aru‑yin sa	'back sa'
	'[...]' / өврийн са övriin sa / ᠥᠪᠦᠷ ᠦᠨ ᠰᠠ öbür‑ün sa

Components 3

Components (зурлага)
Small right flourish? (Бага орхиц Baga orhits / ᠪᠠᠭ᠎ᠠ ᠣᠷᠬᠢᠴᠠ [baγ-a orkiča] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help))❓
Left flourish (/ leach)❓ (Урагшлах uragshlakh / ᠤᠷᠤᠭᠰᠢᠯᠠᠭ᠎ᠠ [uruγsilaγ-a] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 4) (help))❓
⟨⟩ Leash^, Disjoined flourish Цацлага tsatslaga / ᠴᠠᠴᠤᠯᠭ᠎ᠠ [čačulγ-a] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 6) (help)
CLAW Хумс khums / ᠬᠢᠮᠤᠰᠤ kimusu
TABLE FORK, PICHFORK, TRIDENT (Сэрээ Seree / ᠰᠡᠷᠡᠭᠡ serege)
Upturned tail? BRISTLING (Эрвэгэр сүүл erveger süül / ᠡᠷᠪᠡᠭᠡᠷ ᠰᠡᠭᠦᠯ erbeger segül)
⦿ Flame^ ⦿ ТариаТариа taria / ᠲᠠᠷᠢᠶ᠎ᠠ tariy-a 'grain' ⦿ Битүү bitüü / ᠪᠢᠲᠡᠭᠦᠦ bitegüü 'closed, shut, sealed'
Short tail, Hook^ Одой сүүл odoi süül❓ / ᠣᠳᠤᠢ ᠰᠡᠭᠦᠯ odui segül

MONG. SCRIPT #Writing styles

Square

STRIKETHROUGH = OLD = FIX SOURCING

• • OLD: As a variant of the traditional script there exists a vertical square script (Босоо дөрвөлжин), also called folded script, used e.g. on the Mongolian banknotes.
  • ᠡᠪᠬᠡᠮᠡᠯ ebkemel bičig/üsüg 'ligature (in writing).
  • Decorative ᠡᠪᠬᠡᠮᠡᠯ ebkemel 'wrapped, folded' letters.[]
  • "folded letters" (эвхмэл үсэг evkhmel üseg).
  • "Folded" script

Style sources

Altan gerel = golden light/beam/ray sutra

Uyghur Mong. «Bodhicaryāvatāra 'The Journey to Enlightenment' (1312) commentary»	Semi-modern «Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra / altan gerel kemekü yeke kölgen sudur orošibai 'The Mahāyāna sūtra called the Golden Ray'»	Pen-written "Little" Altan Tobchi 'Golden Summary' (1604)	Brush-written (1800s)

Writing styles

As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward):

Rounded letterforms

• Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten arban 'ten').

Tail

• Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of a, e, n, q, [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help), m, l, s, š, and d) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting.
• The long final tails of a, e, n, and d in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century Uyghur Mongolian style of texts.

Yodh

• A hooked form of yodh was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial y from ǰ. The handwritten form of final-shaped yodh (i, ǰ, y), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms.

'Crook' with upturn at the end.

Diacritics

• The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters n, [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help), and š, can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both q and [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted n is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) and n can be offset downward from their respective letters (as in ᠭᠣᠣᠯ [γool] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 4) (help) and ᠭᠦᠨ ᠢ^⟨?⟩ gün‑i).
• (normally written to the left, as in the dotted final n in ken 'who, which' – usually undotted){CITATION NEEDED)

Bow

• When a bow-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see bi). A final b has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:

[čaγšbd] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help). [čaγšabad] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) 'vow'.

[čiγšabd] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) 'monastic vow'

The word [čiγšabd] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) in a Uyghur Mongolian style: exemplifying a dotted syllable-final [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help), and a final bd ligature.

Gimel-heth and kaph

• As in kü, köke, ǰüg and separated a/e, two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a kaph (k/g) or aleph (a/e) in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, qi was used in place of ki, and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix ‑taqi/‑daqi.

Hooked resh (X Ligatures X)

• The letter L (hooked resh) forms a ligature with a preceding bow-shaped letter, as in / bilig 'intellect' or / bolai̯ 'is'. In pre-modern Written Mongol, ML (᠊ᠮᠯ‍) forms a ligature, as in / [[ayaγ‑q‑a] tegimlig] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 5) (help) 'worthy of respect; reverend'.
• Final L can have a long or short tooth to its left.{CITATION NEEDED)

Block‑printed		Pen-written form	Modern brush‑written form	Trans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. form	semi-modern forms
				sedkil 'thought'

As an example, a shin may form part of every letter in ᠵᠦᠢᠯ ǰüil (зүйл züil) 'kind, species, sort, category'.

Short tail

• A pre-modern variant form for final s appears in the shape of a short final n ⟨‍ᠰ᠋⟩, derived from Old Uyghur zayin (𐽴). It tended to be replaced by the mouth-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ᠋ Činggis. A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final m and [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help).

Zain (short tail).

Zain in ulus on early coins of the Mongolian People's Republic.

z

Taw and lamedh

• Initial taw (t/d) can, akin to final mem (m), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in nom 'book' and toli 'mirror'). The lamedh (t or d) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in ‑daki/‑deki or ‑dur/‑dür). As in metü, a Uyghur style word-medial t can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal (taw) form otherwise used for d. Taw was applied to both initial t and d from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme d in this position.

Tsade

• Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular tsade (‍ᠵ‍ and ᠴ) has come to represent ǰ and č respectively. The tsade before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no ǰ had existed in Old Uyghur:

Resh

• As in sara and ‑dur/‑dür, a resh (of r, and sometimes of l) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.

Writing styles

Pen-written forms		Skorodumova
	ᠠᠷᠪᠠᠨ arban 'ten'
	‑ača/‑eče
	‑un/‑ün
	‑ud/‑üd
	ᠪᠠ ba 'and' ba 'and; we'
	‑i
	‑yi
	‑yin
	ᠰᠠᠶᠢᠨ sayin 'good' sain
	yeke 'large, great' ᠶᠡᠬᠡ 'big'
	‑u/‑ü
	ᠪᠢ bi 'I' bi 'I'	??
	ab (intensifying particle)
	‑a/‑e
	[‑luγ‑a] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 4) (help)
	kü (emphatic particle)
	köke 'blue' ᠬᠥᠬᠡ 'blue'
	köge 'soot'
	ǰüg 'direction, side'
	ese es(‑)e 'not, no', (negation)	<ese>!!
	ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ulus 'state'
	nom 'belief, doctrine, religion'	??
	ᠴᠠᠭ [čaγ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) 'time' [čaγ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) 'time'
_uu _üü
X toli X	toli 'mirror'
	‑daki/‑deki
	‑tur/‑tür
	‑dur/‑dür
	metü postposition, 'like'
	čečeg 'flower' ᠴᠡᠴᠡᠭ 'flower'
	qačar/[γaǰar] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) 'cheek/place' ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ [γaǰar] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) 'country'
	ᠰᠠᠷᠠ sara 'moon, month' ᠰᠠᠷᠠ 'moon' sara(n) 'moon, month'	<sara>or<sar-a>!!

MONG. SCRIPT #Punctuation

1

ken 'who, which' – here with a dotted final n.

2

Proofreader's omission mark (🞡 or 🞨).

Abbreviations

ᠰ‍ ‍ᠰ‍ ‍ᠰ‍ ‍ᠷ s s s r 'ussr'.

Word-break

Shaping when word breaking^

Cyrillic punctuation

wikt:category:mn:Punctuation marks

Modern

︱︔︕·~ ※ （᠁） ︵᠁︶ 〈᠁〉 ︿᠁﹀ 〔᠁〕 ﹇᠁﹈ 《᠁》 ︽᠁︾ ⁈ ⁉

MONG. SCRIPT #Numerals

Ref image

Greatest Common Divisor = 2

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	0
᠑	᠒	᠓	᠔	᠕	᠖	᠗	᠘	᠙	᠐

Written across the line

Mozilla > text-combine-upright > Browser compatibility w3 > vertical text

Tate-chū-yoko, Horizontal-in-vertical text, or vertical text with embedded horizontal text.

ᠨᠢᠭᠡ᠂ ᠒᠂ ᠬᠣᠶᠠᠷ᠃
ᠠᠷᠪᠠ᠂ ᠒᠐᠂ ᠭᠤᠴᠢ᠃
ᠨᠢᠭᠡ ᠵᠠᠭᠤ᠂ ᠒᠐᠐᠂
ᠬᠣᠶᠠᠷ ᠵᠠᠭᠤ ᠁ ᠒᠐᠐᠐ ᠁

MONG. SCRIPT #Unicode

Mongolian script#Rendering issues

Table cells with characters within angle brackets ⟨ᠠ⟩ represents the correct appearance where rendering errors otherwise might occur with certain typefaces or platforms.

...

The correct separated glyphs after mvs and nnbsp appears to not render properly with Webkit browsers (Chrome/Opera) on Android devices (should appear left-swung).

...

Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (as in those of letters a, e, n, q, [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help), m, l, s, š, and d) may have the distinct left-pointing notch preceding it in printed form, instead written as a less tapering or even fully rounded curve in handwriting.

MONG. MIX

Vanchinbalyn Injinash:

ᠸᠠᠩᠴᠢᠨᠪᠠᠯ ᠤᠨ
ᠢᠨᠵᠢᠨᠤᠰᠢ wangčinbal-un inǰinusi

• Transliteration
  • ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ → mongγol
  • монгол ↔ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ
• https://contrastchecker.com/
  • PowderBlueField
  • GoldField

Superimposing -a/e

Template:Superimpose

‍ᠮ᠎ᠠ^⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩

rrr
⟨ ⟩ bbb
⟨ ⟩ bbb

https://bricampgomez.com/blog/how-to-overlap-images-in-css/

n-a

⟨⟩aaa

BBB

⟨‍ᠨ᠋⟩aaa

Qutlugh

copy 1

copy 2

Line19, bump4 onward

Arabic:

Line19, bump4

بزینک ڛنورعال بولوب ترخان بُولُب

Line20, bump4/crease

توُرڛوُن تِیدِیمیز بو کون دین اِیلکازو قِیرم

Line21, flat/crease

...

Line22, bump5

کنت نینک جواریندا بورُونخی زمان دین

Line23

بِیُو متجدز ترقان بولعان ایندِرجی ڛلاڛی

Line24, crease

...

Line25, bump6

اوغلان لر(...) اِیاکی حاحی محمد وً محمود

Line26, bump6

نی ازاد ترظبو بولپن بوار (...) یِر ڛُو

Line27, underside

...

Books

Grønbech1993

• ǰarliγ bolorun "commanding, declaiming" (of royal personages, 'saying')
• "It ends in - ( u ) run / - ( ü ) rün . ögülerün ( thus ) saying asayurun inquiring ( as follows ) Jarliy bolurun commanding , declaiming ( of royal personages , ' saying ' )"
• "Vocabulary 6 a vocative particle žarliy decree , order , edict abači- to lead , conduct away žarliy bol- to command , proabayai master ( address to supclaim ; of a royal figure , to erior ) , sire say ..."
• "order , command (of a superior ) ; decree"

Poppe1974

• γuu-a-da 'nicely, beautifully' (suffix -da/-de) < γuu-a 'nice, beautiful'
• door-a 'below'

Terminology

таталган бичиг 'cursive script'

жалжгар ᠠᠯᠵᠢᠭᠠᠷ

Яатгар eg: яатгар хамарт ᠶᠠᠲᠠᠭᠠᠷ

аяга тахимлаг

Spacing: AAA BBB CCC

Typefaces

National University of Mongolia dictionary+font: http://dict.num.edu.mn/

University of Inner Mongolia fonts: http://oyun.mglip.com/mongolfont/index.aspx

MONG. Suffixes

Suffix-suffix-suffix

ᠡᠮ᠎ᠡ ᠲᠡᠢ ᠪᠡᠨ em‑e‑tei‑ben 'together with his own wife'.

ᠪᠣᠯᠣᠷ ᠤᠨ ᠠ bolor‑un‑a (genitive-dative-locative).

ᠠᠬ᠎ᠠ ᠯᠤᠭ᠎ᠠ ᠪᠠᠨ [aq‑a‑luγ‑a‑ban] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help).

ᠪᠯᠠᠮ᠎ᠠ ᠨᠠᠷ ᠤᠳ (b)lam‑a‑nar‑ud 'lamas' ("a word can take more than one plural suffix").

• ügei gerel tegüsügsen-iyer tunumal dörben bilig-luγ-a tegüsügsen.

• bilig-luγ-a tegüsügsen 'perfect with wisdom'. ... nom-dur tegüsügsen nom-iyar olqui 'perfect with the teaching and with the help of teaching he atttained [good morals]'.

• The Bodhicaryāvatāra: öber-ün erdem-üd // -iyer-iyen sedkis-i.
  • http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/monght/images/monght011_157v.jpg

Separated suffixes "Poppe1974" pp 69–89

cf. = confer

• • -ta/-te suffix.
  • tu(dur), -tu/-tü suffix.
  • tur.
  • tü(dur), tü(tu, tai).

A	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-a (dative-locative)
☐	-a(½) "vocative" (interjection)
☐	-AI (genitive)
☑	-ača (ablative)
☑	-ačaγan (ablative)
E	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☐	-e(½) (dative-locative)
☐	-e? "vocative" (interjection)
☑	-eče (ablative)
☑	-ečegen (reflexive-possessive-ablative)
I	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-i (accusative)
☑	-iyar (instrumental)
☑	-iyer (instrumental)
☑	-iyan (genitive, reflexive-possessive, accusative)
☑	-iyen (genitive, reflexive-possessive, accusative)
U	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-u (genitive)
☑	-un (genitive)
☐	-ud(½) (plural)
☐	-uruγu?
☐	-UBEN
Ü	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-ü (genitive)
☑	-ün (genitive)
☐	-ügei?
☐	-üd(½) (plural)
☐	-ÜBEN
N	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-nar (plural)
☐	-ner (plural)
☐	NI
☑	-nuγud (plural)
☑	-nügüd (plural)
B	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-ban (reflexive-possessive, accusative?, ablative?)
☑	-ben (reflexive-possessive, accusative?, ablative?)
☑	-bar (instrumental)
☑	-ber (instrumental)
K	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-ki (case-bound possession)
☐	-kin (case-bound possession)
G	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☐	-GI non-classical colloquial (accusative)
☐	-GIYIN colloquial (genitive)
M	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☐	MINI (personal possessive?)
☐	MINU (personal possessive?)
L	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☐	-LAR/-LER non-classical (comitative-instrumental)
☑	-luγ-a (comitative)
☑	-lüge (comitative)
T	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☐	-ta non-classical (dative-locative)
☐	-te non-classical (dative-locative)
☑	-ta (multiplicative)
☑	-te (multiplicative)
☑	-tača mainly pre-classical (dative-locative + ablative)
☑	-teče mainly pre-classical (dative-locative + ablative)
☑	-taki
☑	-teki
☑	-tai (comitative)
☑	-tei (comitative)
☑	-taγan (dative-locative)
☑	-tegen (dative-locative)
☐	-tayiγan (reflexive+comitative)
☐	-teyigen (reflexive+comitative)
☑	-tu non-classical (dative-locative)
☑	-tü non-classical (dative-locative)
☑	-tur (dative-locative)
☑	-tür (dative-locative)
D	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☐	-da non-classical (dative-locative)
☐	-de non-classical (dative-locative)
☑	-dača mainly pre-classical (dative-locative + ablative)
☑	-deče mainly pre-classical (dative-locative + ablative)
☑	-daki
☑	-deki
☐	-daγ (regular action)
☐	-deg (regular action)
☑	-daγan (dative-locative)
☑	-degen (dative-locative)
☑	-duγar (ordinal)
☑	-düger (ordinal)
☑	-du non-classical (dative-locative)
☑	-dü non-classical (dative-locative)
☑	-dur (dative-locative)
☑	-dür (dative-locative)
Č	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☐	-ČA pre-classical (ablative)
☐	-ČE pre-classical (ablative)
☐	-ČI (personal possessive)
Y	-suffix	Poppe	Lessing	Skorodumova
☑	-yi (accusative)
☐	-YIGI non-classical colloquial (accusative)
☑	-yin (genitive)
☑	-yuγan (genitive, reflexive-possessive accusative)
☑	-yügen (genitive, reflexive-possessive accusative)

MONG. Suffixes > Homoglyphs

• ᠦᠭᠡᠢ ügei 'no'. &  ᠦᠭᠡᠢ ‑ügei suffix. ● ᠤᠷᠤᠭᠤ [uruγu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 4) (help) 'into, to, towards'. &  ᠤᠷᠤᠭᠤ [‑uruγu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 5) (help) suffix. ● ᠯᠤᠭ᠎ᠠ [luγ‑a] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 3) (help) 'similar to, as, like'. &  ᠯᠤᠭ᠎ᠠ [‑luγ‑a] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 4) (help) suffix. ● ᠲᠠᠶᠢᠭᠠᠨ [tayiγan] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 5) (help) 'eunuch, wether, castrate'. &  ᠲᠠᠶᠢᠭᠠᠨ [‑tayiγan] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 6) (help) suffix.

MONG. Inscriptions

nscriptions, manuscripts, or printed texts in 'Phags-pa or Mongolian script.

Mongolian language inscriptionsMongolian

Image	Title	Year	Script	Ref
	Stele of Yisüngge / Чингисийн чулууны бичиг 'Stone of Chinggis Khaan'	1224/1225–70	Mongolian
	Edict of Töregene, Purple Subtlety Palace (Ziwei Gong 紫微宫), Mount Wangwu [4]	1240	Mongolian
	Edict of Möngke Khan	1257	Mongolian
	Edict of Kublai Khan, Shaolin Monastery	1261	Mongolian
	Edict of Kublai Khan 2, Shaolin Monastery	1268	Mongolian
	Juyongguan inscription	1345	'Phags-pa
	Rock Inscription of Tsogt Taij	1624	Mongolian
	Epitaph/inscription in memory of Chang Yingrui (張應瑞 Zhāng Yìngruì)	1335	Sino-Mongolian
			Mongolian
[5]	Inscription in memory of Jigüntei	1338	Mongolian
	Inscription of Arug, prince of Yunnan	1340	Mongolian
	興元閣 Xīngyuángé inscription	1346	Mongolian
	Inscription of the buddhist shrine in Karakorum	1346	Mongolian
	Prince Hümegei's inscription	1348	Mongolian
	Inscription in memory of prince Hindu	1368	Mongolian
	The Sino-Mongolian Edict of 1453, Topkapi palace(ref!)	1453	(Sino-?)Mongolian
	Mount Wutai monasteries inscriptions		Mongolian
	Arǰai Grotto inscriptions		Mongolian

• Stone inscriptions at Karakorum (early 14th century) / Cleaves: "The Sino-Mongolian Inscription of 1346"/1347.
• The 'Phags-pa buddhist dedicatory inscription at Цагаан хэрмийн (Цавчаал боомт)-ын хаалга Tsavchaal Boomt, the Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass (1345)

• An edict of Ögedei (1240).
• Edict of Güyüg with the Imperial Seal of the Mongols on a letter to the Pope (1246),
• Subashid sutra (1290s)
• The Book of Filial Piety (1307),
• New Testament and Psalms translated by Giovanni da Montecorvino (1310s, now lost)
• A book on sacrifice to the Big Dipper(1330s)
• The edicts of the Yuan Emperors: from Qubilai Khan to Togontemür (1277–1368)

MONG. Mongolian literature

nscriptions, manuscripts, or printed texts in 'Phags-pa or Mongolian script.

• Poems and epics, like a poem of Muhammad al-Samarqandi (1290s).
• Dictionaries: "mongγol nanggiyad üsüg-ün toli bičig" (蒙漢字典) published in 1928 @ http://www.cneas.tohoku.ac.jp/staff/hkuri/articles/a62houkoku14.pdf, The Pentaglot Dictionary (1794?).
• the Golden Light Sutra in mongolian (1330s),
  • link
• Ere koyar jagal (“The Two Dappled Steeds”)

• Зүрхэн толт(!)ын тайлбар огторгуйн маани ᠵᠢᠷᠦᠭᠡᠨ ᠦ ᠲᠣᠯᠲᠠ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠲᠠᠶᠢᠯᠪᠤᠷᠢ Jirüken-ü tolta-yin tayilburi oγtarγui-yin mani kemekü sudur orosibai, Mongγol kele-sinjilel-ün durasqaltu bičig-üd
  • link 1, and link 2
  • link 3, and link 4, and image
• Mongolian Golden Kanjur Fragments in the Collection of the IOM, RAS: http://www.academia.edu/23387384/Mongolian_Golden_Kanjur_Fragments_in_the_Collection_of_the_IOM_RAS

• Brush-written novel
• Manuscripts on Birch Bark from Xarbuxyn Balgas in the Collection of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences
• Turpan manuscripts
• Dunhuang manuscripts
• Writings unearthed at Turfan (early 14th century?).

• Translations of the Classic of Filial Piety (Achlalt Nom, 1307), Golden Light Sutra (Altangerel, 1330s) into mongolian, Diamond Sutra (Yeke kölgen sudur, 19th century)
• A 19th century illustrated manuscript with the Legend of Molon Toyin (Maudgalyāyana).
• Subhāṣitaratnanidhi / ས་སྐྱ་ལེགས་བཤད་ Sa-Skya legs-bshad / "Elegant Sayings of Sakya Pandita", "A Tibetan Treasury of Aphorisms"/ Эрдэнийн сан Субашид Erdeni-yin Sang, translated by Sonom Gara.

Table

Mongolian language literatureMongolian

Image	Title	Year	Script	Ref
	The Secret History of the Mongols	1228	Mongolian, Sino-Mongolian
	Mahakali hymn	1305 / early 14th century	Mongolian
	Altan debter 'Golden Book'	n/a
	'Record of the Campaigns Led Personally by the Holy Brave Emperor'	n/a	Chinese translation
[6]	Birch-bark Manuscript of the Golden Horde, and also of others found in Mongolia.	1240s?	Mongolian
	Abaga's letter	1267/89
	Argun's letter to Philippe le Bel	1289
	Argun's letter to Pope Nicholas IV	1290
	Qasan's letter to Pope Bonifacius VIII	1302
	Öljeitü's letter to Philippe le Bel	1305
	Bodhisaduva-nar-un yabudal-dur oroqui	1305
	Translation of the Book of Filial Piety (¿Achlalt Nom?)	1307
	The Mongolian translation of Bodhicaryāvatāra 'The Journey to Enlightment' xylograph with included commentary by Čosgi Odsir 'Light of Doctrine' (Middle Mong.; Khalkha Mong.: ... Choiji-Odser/Osor; Tib.: Chhos-kyi 'od-zer)	1312	Mongolian
	Il-Khan Busayid edict	1320	Mongolian
	Kebek edict	1326	Mongolian
	Banzragch sutra (¿Pancharaksha Sutra?)	early 14th century
	Hua–Yi yiyu	1389	Sino-Mongolian
	Muqaddimat al-adab	14th century	Arabic Mongolian
	The Alexander Romance manuscript fragments	14th century	Mongolian
	Block-printed Makhagaliin Magtaal / Mahākāli hymn by Chosgi Odsir	14th century, early	Mongolian
	[[[Erdeni tunumal neretü sudur orusiba|Erdeni tunumal neretü sudur orusiba]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 150) (help)
	Printed Mongolian version of the Suvarnaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarāja 'Sutra of Golden Beam' (-ṇ?-)	1578/9
	Altan Khans letter	1580	Mongolian
	Ming dynasty edicts	15th century	Mongolian
	Шар тууж Shar Tuuj • 'Yellow story'	17th century
	[Sira toγuǰi] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) 'Yellow History'
	Altan Tobchi • Altan tobči 'Golden Summary' ((Remarks on the Cinggis Qaghan-u Altan Tobci))	17th century	Mongolian
	Erdeniin Tovch • Erdeni-yin tobči 'Precious Summary' by Sagan Setsen (historical)	1662
	Bolor Erikh • Bolor erike 'Crystal Rosary' (historical)	1774–1775
	Болор толь [[[Bolor toli|Bolor toli]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 100) (help) 'Crystal Mirror' (historical)	1834–1837
	Khökh sudur • [[[Köke sudur|Köke sudur]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 100) (help) 'Blue Chronicle' (historical prose) by Injinnash	19th century

Literature, mix

• Mongolian Golden Kanjur Fragments in the Collection of the IOM, RAS: http://www.academia.edu/23387384/Mongolian_Golden_Kanjur_Fragments_in_the_Collection_of_the_IOM_RAS

• Manuscripts on Birch Bark from Xarbuxyn Balgas in the Collection of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences
• Turpan manuscripts
• Dunhuang manuscripts

• Translations of the Classic of Filial Piety (Achlalt Nom, 1307), Golden Light Sutra (Altangerel, 1330s) into mongolian, Diamond Sutra (Yeke kölgen sudur, 19th century)

• Subhāṣitaratnanidhi / ས་སྐྱ་ལེགས་བཤད་ Sa-Skya legs-bshad / "Elegant Sayings of Sakya Pandita", "A Tibetan Treasury of Aphorisms"/ Эрдэнийн сан Субашид Erdeni-yin Sang, translated by Sonom Gara.

• Stone inscription(s?) at Karakorum.

• Writings unearthed at Turfan (early 14th century?).

• A 19th century illustrated manuscript with the Legend of Molon Toyin (Maudgalyāyana).

MONG. References

• IN USE
  • ● (gray) = not begun updating.
  • ● (yellow) = updating in progress.
  • 🢂 (green) = updated (i.e in the standard order).
• UN-USED
  • ? = maybe?
  • – = definately!

CITE WEB/JOURNAL (SCRIPT–A–W–GALIK–MULTIGRAPHS)

Template:Cite web

• 🤖🤖<ref name="...">{{Cite web |1last= |2first= |3last2= |4first2= |5date= |6year= |7title= |8url= |9access-date= |Xwebsite= |XIpublisher= |XIIlanguage=}}🤖🤖(auto)

Template:Cite techreport

• 🤖🤖<ref name="...">{{Cite tech report |title= |url= |date= |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |last3= |first3= |website= |institution=}}</ref>🤖🤖(auto)

🞮 🢂 BabelStone

🞮 🢂1/2 MnToli

🞮 🢂2/2 MnToli

🞮 🢂

🞮 🢂1/3 EKIMn2006 — Mongolian transliterations

🞮 🢂2/3 EKIMn2006 — Mongolian transliterations

🞮 🢂3/3 EKIMn2006 — Mongolian transliterations

🞮 🢂 (Techreport 2017)

🞮 🢂1/2 CJVLang2013

🞮 🢂2/2 CJVLang2013

🞮 🢂1/2 StudyMn2013

🞮 🢂2/2 StudyMn2013

🞮 🢂1/2 Biligsaikhan2011 — A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts

🞮 🢂2/2 Biligsaikhan2011 — A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts

🞮 🢂 EKIMn2015

🞮 🢂 EKIMn2015

🞮 🢂

🞮 🢂1/2 Report170(1999) — UNU/IIST Report No. 170 (✱Sa (Mongolic)✱)

🞮 🢂2/2 Report170(1999) — UNU/IIST Report No. 170 (✱Sa (Mongolic)✱)

🞮 🢂1/3 [...] — Keyboard layout

🞮 🢂2/3 [...] — Keyboard layout (*where* is there a need for repeted use?)

🞮 🢂3/3 [...] — Keyboard layout

🞮 🢂 LinguaMnGrammar

🞮 ● (✱E (Mongolic)✱)

🞮 🢂 (Buryat letter) (✱Cha (Mongolic)✱)

CITE WEB/JOURNAL (SCRIPT)

🤖🤖<ref name="...">{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |date= |year= |title= |url= |access-date= |website= |publisher= |language=}}🤖🤖(auto)

🞮 (International Conference on ... 1998) 🢂 (International Conference on ... 1998)

🞮 Shagdarsueren2001 — Study of Mongolian Scripts 🢂 Shagdarsueren2001 — Study of Mongolian Scripts (✱No http link✱)

🞮 LinguaMnScript2011 🢂 LinguaMnScript2011

🞮 EKIMn2015

🞮 Suffixes(2017) 🢂 Suffixes(2017) "PROPOSAL Encode Mongolian Suffix Connector (U+180F) To Replace Narrow Non-Breaking Space (U+202F)" (PDF). UTC Document Register for 2017. 2017-01-15.

🞮 UCCoreSpec(2017) 🢂 UCCoreSpec(2017)

🞮

🞮

🞮 CJVLang2013 🢂 CJVLang2013

🞮 Bolorsoft2018 ..................... 🞮 Bolorsoft2018 ..................... 🢂 Bolorsoft2018

🞮

🞮

🞮 MnToli 🢂 MnToli

🞮

🞮 LinguaMnGrammar 🢂 LinguaMnGrammar

🞮

🞮

🞮

🞮

---

🞮

🞮 EKIMn2006 — Mongolian transliterations }} 🢂 EKIMn2006 — Mongolian transliterations

🞮 🢂 StudyMn2013

🞮

🞮 Tang, Didi (20 March 2020). "Mongolia abandons Soviet past by restoring alphabet". The Times. Retrieved 21 March 2020.

🞮 🢂 BabelStone

CITE BOOK

🢂 Lessing1960 — Mongolian-English Dictionary

🢂 Poppe1974 — Grammar of Written Mongolian

🢂 Grønbech1993 — An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary

🢂 Daniels1996 — The World's Writing Systems

🢂 Chiodo2000 — The Mongolian Manuscripts on Birch Bark from Xarbuxyn Balgas in the Collection of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences

🢂 Skorodumova2000 — Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык

Treasures of the Yenching

🢂 Sanders2003 — Historical Dictionary of Mongolia (Sanders)

🢂 Clauson2005 — Studies in Turkic and Mongolic Linguistics

🢂 Kara2005 — Books of the Mongolian Nomads

🢂 Svantesson2005 — The Phonology of Mongolian

🢂 Janhunen2006 — The Mongolic Languages

🢂 Baumann2008 — Divine Knowledge: Buddhist Mathematics According to the Anonymous Manual of Mongolian Astrology and Divination

🢂 ...2008 — Einführung in die mongolischen Schriften

🢂 Luvsandorj2008 — Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters'

🢂 Berkwitz2009 — Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art

🢂 Sanders2010 — Historical Dictionary of Mongolia

🢂 Janhunen2012 — Mongolian

🢂 Bawden2013 — Mongolian English Dictionary

🢂 Shepherd2013 — Learn World Calligraphy

🢂 Sanders2014 — Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners (✱Only used in Mongolian script multigraphs✱)

🢂 Sanders2015 — Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners

🢂 Unicode15ch13(2022)

MONG. External links

• Digitales Turfan-Archiv: http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/monght/dta_monght_index.htm
• Ishida / Mongolian forms: https://r12a.github.io/mongolian-variants/

MIX

Silo-Caves, China

• Baishe Village, Sanyuan County

А, В, Б, Г, etc

• https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Early_Cyrillic_letters_with_font_lines_in_SVG
• https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cyrillic_letters_on_5_font_lines_(serif_with_big_margin)

Azu,Vedi,Glagol,Dobro,Est,Zhivete,Zelo,Zemlia,Izhe,Izhei,Dje,Kako,Ludi,Myslete,Nash,Onu,Pokoi,Rtsi,Slovo,Tverdo,Uk,Fert,Kher,Omega,Tsi,Cherv,Sha,Back-Yer,Yery,Yer,Yat,Iotated-A,Iotated-E,Yu,Big-Yus,Iotated-Big-Yus,Yusu-Maliy,Iotated-Lesser-Yus,Ksi,Psi,Fita,Izhitsa,Koppa.

Ustav	Poluustav	Modern Cyrillic

ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵗ

Ligatures

Tuareg languages#Orthography

Tifinagh ligatures

Transliteration	Text
bt	ⴱ⵿ⵜ
gt	ⴳ⵿ⵜ
g't	ⴶ⵿ⵜ
z't	ⵌ⵿ⵜ
lt	ⵍ⵿ⵜ
mt	ⵎ⵿ⵜ
nk	ⵏ⵿ⴾ
nt	ⵏ⵿ⵜ
rt	ⵔ⵿ⵜ
st	ⵙ⵿ⵜ
cht	ⵛ⵿ⵜ

bt		ⴱ⵿ⵜ
gt		ⴳ⵿ⵜ
g't		ⴶ⵿ⵜ
ft		ⴼ⵿ⵜ
ht		ⵀ⵿ⵜ
z't		ⵌ⵿ⵜ
lt		ⵍ⵿ⵜ
mt		ⵎ⵿ⵜ
mh		ⵎ⵿ⵀ
ms		ⵎ⵿ⵙ

ⵏ⵿ⴴ	ⵏ⵿ⴶ	ⵏ⵿ⴸ	ⵏ⵿ⴹ	ⵏ⵿ⴼ	ⵏ⵿ⴾ	ⵏ⵿ⵀ	ⵏ⵿ⵌ	ⵏ⵿ⵗ	ⵏ⵿ⵙ
nghh	nj	ndh	ndd	nf	nk	nh	nzh	ngh	ns

ⵏ⵿ⵜ	ⵏ⵿ⵤ	ⵓ⵿ⵜ	ⵔ⵿ⵜ	ⵙ⵿ⵏ	ⵙ⵿ⵜ	ⵛ⵿ⵜ	ⵜ⵿ⵙ	ⵢ⵿ⵜ
nt	nz	ut	rt	sn	st	cht	ts	yt

Gallery

Busts of Valerian (left) and Gallienus (right, as co-regent), 253–258

Roman / Latin

Signifer

• 
  253–260 ADc:File:Marble Bust of Emperor Gallienus, 253-260 AD (28657875801).jpg Gallienus#Early reign
• 
  ?
• 
  ca. 261 AD Gallienus#Postumus revolt
• 
  262 Medallion
• 
  Head of Gallienus from a colossal statue c. 258–268 ADc:File:Portrait of Gallienus.jpg Gallienus#Postumus revolt
• 
  261–268 AD Gallienus#Aemilianus revoltc:File:Gallienus 310120081896.jpg
• 
  260–268
• 
  256–268

• 
  Roman spatha
• 
  OCTꜸIUS and VITÁLIS Apex (diacritic)

http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/art-search-e.htm

c:Category:Dialogues of Roman Life

Galea (helmet)

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  Montefortino type A, Museo Etrusco Guarnacci
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  Haguenau type, Musée historique de Haguenau
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  Imperial Gallic helmet type G, trovato nelle acque del Reno presso Magonza, Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg
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  Imperial type G, Israel Museum
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  Imperial Italic helmet type G, Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg
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  Imperial Gallic, Weissenau type Museum Carnutinum
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  Imperial, Weisenau type, National Archaeological Museum (Madrid)
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  Coolus type C, Vorarlberg Museum
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  Imperial Italic type D,

2

Coin of c. 280 AD depicting Probus and Sol Invictus. The inscription reads: IMP·C·PROBUS·INVIC·P·F·AUG ("Emperor Caesar Probus, Unconquered, Pious, Blessed")

• Bronze Aquila discovered in a field near Sălcuţa, Dolj County. Now at the Museum of Oltenia, Craiova.
• Aquila at the History Museum Râmnicu Vâlcea.

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  Temple of the Sun (Rome)
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  Aurelians Temple of the Sun (Rome) in I quattro libri dell'architettura.https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2017/07/19/palladio-and-the-temple-of-the-sun-in-rome/
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  The so-called Servilius Ahala / inv. 5606 / 1st century BC / Probus?, Napoli, museo archeologico (Naples Archaeological Museum)
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  Bust of Carinus, Hall of the Emperors.
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  Bust of Diocletian, Hall of the Emperors.
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  LSA-1007
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  Flavius Palmatus. http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/, LSA-198 (R.R.R. Smith).
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  Leo I or Anastasius? http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=1130

3

Theodosius II

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  http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/, LSA-1068 (J. Lenaghan), —; http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/, LSA-1069 (J. Lenaghan).
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  A Roman judge, around 425-450 AD. From Aphrodisias. http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/, LSA-169 (R.R.R. Smith).
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  A Roman judge, around 425-450 AD. From Aphrodisias. http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/, LSA-170 (R.R.R. Smith).
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  http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/, LSA-763 (Ulrich Gehn).

Tetrarchy

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  Constantius I? http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-810
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  Diocletian?, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-804
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  Ca 295–305 broken off head of a togate statue from Asia Minor
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  Diocletian? http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/, LSA-298 (J. Lenaghan) ^[1] or Maximian?
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  Diocletian?
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  Galerius??, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-805
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  Foundation of the Tetrarchy: Medallion of Diocletian and Galerius, 293
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  Foundation of the Tetrarchy: Constantius I and Galerius confronted in consular robes, 293
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  Maximian(?) on the Big Game Hunt mosaic, Villa Romana del Casale
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  Gold multiple, 8 solidi, of Constantius Chlorus (aged portrait) struck in Trier in 305/306 for the installation of the tetrarchy. Obverse, diameter 41 mm, 42.95 g. Former Carlos de Beistegui collection. Kept in the BNF medal cabinet. inv: Beistegui.230 - Most likely comes from the Arras treasures. Single currency.
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  Aureus of Maximinus as Caesar, AD 305/306. MAXIMINVS NOB C
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  Trier. CONSTAN-TIVS P F AVG, AD 305–307
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  Gold coin from the period 307-312, Rome. Photographed at the MAN. Double aureus by Maxentius, 308, 10.72 g. provenant du trésor de Partinico (n°153), Numismatica Ars Classica, Zurich, n°139, published on October 26, 2005.
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  Medallion of two aurei with head of Maxentius, Roman Imperial Period, A.D. 307–308, Mint: Italy, Rome
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  Head of Maximianus with veil (capite velato), 309/310–312

Constantinian dynasty

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  Marble head, ca 325/311-337
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  Provincial head from Niš, ca 325–330

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  Solidus of Leo, ca 457–468

Maxentius

Maxentius#Discovery of Imperial insignia (three lances and four javelins )

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  Sceptre " Imperial insignia: scepter, with sphere mounted on an eight-petaled crown which must have been attached to a wooden handle. In iron, copper and orichalcum for the scepter, in green glass for the sphere."
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  Parade spearheads (lances?) (1/2)
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  Parade spearheads (lances?) (2/2) "On the left: parade spearhead in iron and orichalcum, socketed handle opening onto a six-petaled flower on which the trifoliate spearhead is fixed. Right: iron banner-carrying spearhead, with a triangular point, equipped with wings for attaching a fabric banner. Rome, Palatine Hill (Italy), late 3rd - early 4th century."

Greek minuscule

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Greek_uncial_letters

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• 
  Uncial 0209
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  Uspenski Gospels

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  Papyrus original (5th century BCE)
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  Reproduction
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  Transcription

Various Greek ligatures

Ligatures
παρα παρα αὐτῷ αὐτῷ ος ος γα γα τς τς αι αι υι υι υι υι πς πς γς γς σχ σχ γν γν τοὺς τοὺς μαι μαι ται ται αι αι ασ ασ σκ σκ ππ ππ υ υ ει ει αν αν _ ϗ̀ ϗ̀ προ προ σθ_ σθ_ ῶ ῶ γί γί ου ου _ _ λλ λλ _ κὰι κὰι ψι ψι θα θα τα τα

Hebrew

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  Lenghtened/elonggated/stretched letters

Mongol

Mongolian 1949 constitution (ᠪᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡ ᠨᠠᠶ᠋ᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠠᠷᠠᠳ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠤᠨ ᠦᠨᠳᠦᠰᠦᠨ ᠬᠠᠤᠯᠢ)

Book on astrology, gallery

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  JONON? HAT
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  Golden Horde manuscript on birch bark таблица IIIa (.4) & IV (.5).

• ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ
• Mongolian dollar

Devanagari, Gurmukhi, Odia script

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  An 1887 letter from a Tibetan Governor to a Nepali one, showing long headstrokes (ꣻ).
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  Illuminated Guru Granth Sahib folio with nisan (Mul Mantar) of Guru Nanak
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  ...
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  Pallava script at the 8th century Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu.

Hangul, Korean punctuation

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  First edition of the Tongnip Sinmun newspaper.

(FLAG)

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  Selling Fiber Textiles, Angola, 1650s