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Sources

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  • James Forsyth's History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony, 1581-1990 (1994) Cambridge University Press
Fonnerly it was believed that in earlier times the Mansi, Khanty and other Ugrian tribes had lived entirely to the west of the Urals near the Volga, where the migrations of peoples from Eastern Eurasia impinged upon them. As a result, some of the Ugrians were pushed north-eastward, while others - the Magyars - moved south beyond the forest edge, adopting a horse-riding, pastoral way of life. A more recent view of the origins of the Ugrians is that about 1000 BC they lived east of the Urals in the wooded steppes around the Irtysh, from where some of them gradually pushed north into the forest. In either case it was from the wooded steppe south of the Urals that the Ugrian tribe of Magyars set out in the ninth century AD on the long westward migration which eventually brought them to Central Europe as the founders of the Hungarian nation. It is possible that the Bashkirs of the southern Urals are descended from those Magyars who remained behind. The people of Yugra are referred to as "Yugrian".
  • The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages (2022) eds. Marianne Bakró-Nagy, Johanna Laakso, and Elena Skribnik
From the Ugric primeval home, the linguistic ancestors of the Ob-Ugrians would have migrated northwards, merging with the hunter-gatherer peoples of the forest zone (see e.g. Sokolova 1980: 93). In the ethnography of Ob-Ugrians, more concretely of Mansi and North Khanty, a combination of two different cultural systems is described, starting with the traditional division into two exogamic phratries, por and moś, and also manifest in the presence of parallel religious systems, common Ugric shamanism and the bear cult on the one side, the cult of the Sky Rider, “the man contemplating the world” (seen as an adaptation of Mithraism, Gemuev 1996) on the other side.
  • Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age (2009)
...the rulers in both Kazan and Sibir sought to extend their influence into non Muslim populations to the north and west. In Siberia these communities consisted of Ob Ugrians (Mansi and Khanty, referred to sometimes as Voguls and Ostiaks) who were sources of tribute and military support to both Kuchum and his Russian rivals.
  • Andras Rona-Tas HUNGARIANS AND EUROPE IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES
Uses the terms Ugrian and Ob-Ugrian in the usual way.

Refs

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  • Tarkiainen, Kari (2010). Ruotsin Itämaa : Esihistoriasta Kustaa Vaasaan (in Finnish). Helsinki: Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland. ISBN 978-951-583-212-2.
  • Korpela, Jukka; Kaukiainen, Yrjö; Nurmiainen, Jouko (2004). Viipurin linnaläänin synty (in Finnish). Lappeenranta: Karjalan Kirjapaino. ISBN 952-5200-43-4.
  • XYZ, ABC (2022). "CHAPTER TITLE". In Bakró-Nagy, Marianne; Laakso, Johanna; Skribnik, Elena K. (eds.). The Oxford guide to the Uralic languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-876766-4.
  • XYZ, ABC (2023). "CHAPTER TITLE". In Abondolo, Daniel Mario; Valijärvi, Riitta-Liisa (eds.). The Uralic languages. Routledge Language Family (2nd ed.). London New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-65084-8.
  • Vásáry, István (1982). "The 'Yugria' Problem". In Róna-Tas, András (ed.). Chuvash studies. Bibliotheca orientalis hungarica. Budapest: Akadémiai kiadó. ISBN 978-963-05-2851-1.
  • Hajdú, Péter (1998). "A magyar–ugor vs. altaji összehasonlítótól az uráli nyelvészetig (via finnugor)". In Domokos, Péter; Csepregi, Márta (eds.). 125 éves a Budapesti Finnugor Tanszék: jubileumi kötet [From the Hungarian-Ugric vs. Altaic comparative study to Uralic linguistics (via Finno-Ugric)]. Urálisztikai tanulmányok. Budapest: ELTE, BFT. pp. 56–62. ISBN 978-963-463-213-9.
  • Stipa, Günter Johannes (1990). Finnisch-ugrische Sprachforschung von der Renaissance bis zum Neupositivismus. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia (in German). Vol. 206. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
  • XYZ, ABC (2015). "CHAPTER TITLE". In Sudár, Balázs (ed.). Magyarok a honfoglalás korában [Hungarians during the Age of Conquest]. Magyar őstörténet. Budapest: Helikon. pp. 1–200. ISBN 978-963-227-592-5.

Notes

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Testament of King Magnus Eriksson

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MBL

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Magnus Birgersson (c. 1240 – 18 December 1290), commonly known as Magnus Ladulås[a] (lit. 'Barnlock'), was King of Sweden from 1275 until his death in 1290.[1]

Yem

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The Finnish–Novgorodian wars were a series of conflicts between the Republic of Novgorod and Finnic tribes of eastern Fennoscandia, referred to as Yem or Yam. The conflicts are mentioned in East Slavic chronicles between the 11th and early 13th centuries.

The word Yem is cognate with the Finnish word Häme (Tavastia).[2] In some cases, Yem refers to inhabitants of Tavastia in south-central Finland, while sometimes it also seems to include ,[3] or a sub-group of Karelians on the northern coast of the Ladoga who descended from western Finns who had moved to the area earlier.[4]

Kol and Burislev

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Kol (died about 1173) was a Swedish prince who, together with his brother Burislev was a contender for the throne of Sweden from 1167 until his violent death a few years later. The struggle was a stage in the rivalry between the House of Sverker, to which Kol and Burislev belonged, and the House of Eric.

Boleslaw (Swedish: Burislev; died 1172/73) was a Swedish pretender for the throne, belonging to the House of Sverker. He acted in concert with his kinsman Kol against King Canute I of Sweden, then head of the House of Eric. The two pretenders, who were brothers, half-brothers, or uncle and nephew, may never have controlled much more than the Province of Östergötland, which was the base of the dynasty. Boleslaw is believed either to have been murdered by King Canute's men, or to have fled to Poland in or before 1173.

Background

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Boleslaw was a descendant of the old King Sverker I of Sweden (d. 1156), but the exact pedigree is not clear. Sverker married, as his second wife, Richeza of Poland. From this marriage a son called Bulizlaus (Boleslaw, Burislev) was born, as apparent from a Danish administrative document. He was named for his maternal grandfather Bolesław III Wrymouth. Older Swedish historians, such as Natanael Beckman who wrote a biographical article in Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, therefore claimed that Boleslaw and Kol were sons of Sverker.

However, according to a medieval genealogy, Boleslaw, Kol and a third brother called Ubbe the Strong were in fact the sons of King Sverker I's son John. On the basis of this, Swedish historians such as Nils Ahnlund and Adolf Schück have claimed instead that there were two different Boleslaw, uncle and nephew; thus the contenders were indeed sired by John, who died a young man in c. 1152. A medieval list of monastic donations indicates that a certain Ragnhild was the mother of Kol and probably Boleslaw, and consequently the wife of John. She is known to have survived him and presumably raised her children during the turbulent years following John's and Sverker I's deaths, before entering Vreta Abbey as a nun.

Background

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In most older literature Kol is called Kol Sverkersson, based on an unverifiable assumption that he was a son of King Sverker I of Sweden. The only source that says anything about his parentage is, however, a medieval genealogy copied by Olaus Petri in the 16th century: "Suercherus Rex senior ... genuit Carolum Regem et Johannem ducem et Sunonem Sijk ... Johannes dux genuit Koll Regem, Ubbe fortem et Burislevum Regem".[5] In other words, the genealogy claims he was a grandson of Sverker and a son of Prince John, and that his brothers were Ubbe the Strong and King Burislev.[6][7] A medieval list of donations indicates that the mother of Kol was called Ragnhild. She might have been a relative of the jarl Guttorm who donated land to Vreta Abbey on her behalf.[8]

The suggestion that he was a son of Sverker is based on a Danish source which mentions that Sverker had a son Boleslaw (Burislev). This son has been identified by some historians (such as Nathanael Beckman in Svenskt biografiskt lexikon) as the throne contender by the same name, and thus Kol has also been assigned Sverker I for a father.[6]

Strife for kingship

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Prince John was killed in an incident by the Swedish peasantry around 1152. Since he was a young man at his death, his sons must still have been infants. Kol's uncle Charles VII of Sweden was killed by Canute I of Sweden on Visingsö in 1167. Now Kol was recognized at least in parts of Sweden, presumably in Östergötland which was the basis of the dynasty's power. He held the throne in opposition to Canute for a few years, in tandem with his brother or uncle Burislev. The short chronicle of the Westrogothic law relates the few known details: "[King Canute I] won Sweden with his sword and killed King Kol and King Burislev, and had many battles against Sweden and was victorious in them all".[9] A little more is known about Kol from medieval donation lists. He owned land in Frönäs on Öland and donated it to his mother Ragnhild, who in turn gave it to Vreta Abbey when she entered the abbey as a nun.[8] A papal letter from 1171 or 1172 mentions a "K." who was king of the Swedes and Geats; it is not clear whether Kol or Canute (Knut) is meant.[10] Kol was probably killed in battle or murdered by Canute's men around 1173. A 14th-century source claims that he was killed at Bjälbo.[6][7] After his death, his kinsfolk donated land to Vreta Abbey for his soul, indicating that they were able to keep properties after Canute's victory.[11]

Though some sources affirm that Kol actually was King of Sweden for a few years, the Swedish Royal Court does not recognize him as such in its official list of rulers.

Civil war

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Boleslaw is mentioned in the regnal list appended to Västgötalagen together with Kol: "King Canute I won Sweden with his sword and killed King Kol and King Burislev, and had many battles against Sweden and was victorious in them all." Otherwise, he appears in fewer medieval sources than his brother whose name occurs in several king-lists. According to annotations by the 17th-century scholar Johannes Messenius, Kol fell in battle, but Boleslaw continued the struggle against Canute with some success. However, when he carelessly stayed at the mansion of Bjälbo he was assaulted by Canute's troops and killed. Still later traditions have it that Kol and then Boleslaw were killed in battle at Blodåkrarna (the Blood Fields) close to Bjälbo, in 1169. Most probably, however, the struggle came to an end in 1172–73, since Canute reportedly reigned for 23 years after his victory.

It has been speculated that Canute I married a sister of his antagonists Kol and Boleslaw whose name was Cecilia, and to whom he was betrothed in c. 1160. This hypothesis is based on an annal entry which mentions a Princess Cecilia, mother of Eric the Saint, as the sister of Kol and Ulf (Ubbe). Eric the Saint, it is argued, might be a mistake for Eric X of Sweden, the son of Canute I. This hypothesis has been disputed, however.

Though several sources affirm that Boleslaw actually was King of Sweden for a few years, the Swedish Royal Court does not recognize him as such in its official list of rulers.

Problems

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General structure of Uralic mythologies

Sources

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Other sandboxes

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Ugrians

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Uralic languages at early 20th century
Areas of Uralic protolanguages. "Ugric" denotes the Ugric Sprachbund. The map includes the contemporary state borders.

The Ugrians or Ugors[13] were the pre-historic linguistic ancestors of the present-day Hungarians and the Khanty and Mansi peoples.[14][15][16] The name is sometimes also used in a modern context as a cover term for these three peoples.[17][18]

The Khanty and the Mansi are collectively known as the Ob-Ugrians. They are ethnographically close to each other and live in geographic proximity with each other in the Ob River basin in Western Siberia (mostly in the Khanty-Mansi and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrugs).[18]

Most Hungarians on the other hand live in Hungary in the Central Europe. They are ethnographically and culturally distant from the Ob-Ugrians, and are only related to them by a weak linguistic connection.[18]

History

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Khanty, Mansi and Hungarian languages are all Uralic languages. They are not particularly close, but still share a number of phonological and morphological features, as well as a vocabulary of about 150 words, some of which are related to horsemanship. Khanty and Mansi share a much larger vocabulary, about 400 words. According to the traditional view in Uralic linguistics, the three languages form the Ugric branch of the Uralic family. Khanty and Mansi together form the Ob-Ugric subbranch of the Ugric languages. (See Uralic languages § Classification.). [ugric general]

However, the attempts to reconstruct either the Proto-Ugric or Proto-Ob-Ugric language have not been successful, and the status of the Ugric and Ob-Ugric is now contested. To explain the common features, many Uralists consider that although the three Ugric languages do not necessarily share a common ancestor, they formed a common Sprachbund, influencing each other via areal contact. The original home of the Proto-Ugric languages (either in the traditional or Sprachbund sense) is usually located in Southwestern Siberia, at the margin of the Eurasian steppe.

The divergence of the Ugric languages from each other is considered to have happened around 1000 BC due to steppe migrations and climate changes. Due to these factors, the speakers of Ob-Ugric languages began to move northwards, eventually arriving to their present-day location in the Ob river basin. They merged with the hunter-gatherer people of the taiga. In historical times, they have been in contact with Samoyedic, Turkic, and Komi.

The Ob-Ugric peoples are mentioned in written sources from XXth century onwards. The East Slavic Laurentius chronicle...

The traditional Khanty-speaking areas are located in the ... while the Mansi is traditionally spoken ... The Ob-Ugric languages show a number of contacts with other languages. After the colonization of Siberia, Russian influence has been significant, and today most of the Khanty and Mansi are bilingual in Russian. [ugric general]

After the Ugric divergence, the speakers of Proto-Hungarian began to move westwards, adopting a half-nomadic steppe culture. Not much is known about them or their movements until they arrive in the Pannonian Basin in the 9th century. There is evidence of a lexical contact with Iranian and Turkic, and possibly Permic languages. The number of West Old Turkic loanwords in Hungarian is high, and they seem to have been in a close and prolonged contact with Turkic peoples during this period. (See Hungarian prehistory) [ugric general]

Yugria problem

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The present-day term Ugrian is based on two sources: the term Yugria which historically applied to Ob-Ugrians, and the old Russian ethnonym Ugry for the Hungarians. The relation between these terms has been debated.

The name Yugra appears in Arab-Persian geographical texts in the 11-13th centuries. These writings mention a northern people called Yura or Yugra, with whom the Volga Bulgars carry a silent trade for furs. During the 11th century, the name Yugra also appears in Russian sources, designating a people and their territory. These people are mentioned to share a border with the Samoyeds, and they can be identified with the Khanty and Mansi peoples. The exact location of Yugra varies in the Russian sources, and is apparently associated with the various locations in which the Russians encountered the Khanty and Mansi. In the early sources, it is located on the western foothills of the Ural mountains, but when the Russians reach the Ob river in the 14th century, the location shifts east. The usage of the term Yugra ceases in the 16th century, and the separate ethnonyms Ostyaks and Vogul are adopted for the Khanty and Mansi. It survives in geographical names.[19]

By the middle of the 15th century, Muscovy manages the subjugate the Yugra after multiple campaigns, and Ivan III, the Grand Prince of Moscow, adds "Grand Prince of Yugra" to his title. During this time, the Western World and the Papacy are also becoming increasingly interested in the Muscovy affairs, establishing diplomatic missions and embassies.

The scholarly term "Ugric," encompassing the Magyar, Vogul, and Ostyak peoples, is used even though "we have no evidence whatsoever that the peoples designated by it knew each other or were applied to by their neighbors during their former coexistence". And he adds that this term is "saturated with historical air and a sense of blurred connections."[20]

Miklós Zsirai [hu] discussed the etymology and suggested that both words originate from Onogur.

István Vásáry [hu] disagrees with Zsirai...[19]

András Róna-Tas offers his own take on the matter.

Gábor Gyóni [hu] does not consider the matter closed.

The term Ob-Ugric was introduced by the linguist August Ahlqvist who studied the Khanty and Mansi peoples in the 1880s.[21] A predecessor of this category can be found in 1823 article by Julius Klaproth, who classifies the Ugric languages into two groups: Hungarian (German: Uguren, Onoguren, Ungern) and 'Yugrian' (German: Jugrien, Jugorien), comprising the Khanty and Mansi languages.

László Honti [hu] summarizes much of this very concisely and provides translations of Zsirai. He quotes Zsirai: "The technical term Ugric — bracketing Hungarian, Vogul and Ostyak together — is also used on the assumption that the old names Ugra, Jugria meaning Vogul and Ostyak have a common origin with ungri, Hungaria etc." (Zsirai 1937, 142–143)

The term Ugric peoples (Swedish: Ugriska folken) as a collective designation for the three peoples was used in 1850s by Matthias Castrén.[22][23][24] Earlier, Julius Klaproth had used the term Ugrian Finns in his magnum opus Asia Polyglotta (1828). The term Finno-Ugric was popularized starting from Otto Donner's work in 1870s [hajdu] The term Ugric became commonplace designation for the three ethnic groups and their languages in the early 20th century, following the works of Heikki Paasonen (1902), József Pápay [hu] (1922) and Eemil Nestor Setälä (1926).[20]


[25]

In beginning of the 16th century, the similarity between Yugria (latinized form of the name) and Ugry, an Old Russian ethnonym for the Hungarians, was noted. Yugra has since then been often assumed to be the Hungarians' ancestral home. However, even though the linguistic connection between the Ugric languages is well established, the etymological connection between Yugra and Ugry is disputed. The establishment of the name Ugric for the language family which includesKhanty and Mansi and Hungarian, was based on the assumption that the two words share the same origin.

Notes

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  1. ^ Ulf Sundberg (1999). "Magnus Birgersson 'Ladulås'". Pennan & Svärdet. Archived from the original on March 20, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2019.
  2. ^ Linna, Martti (1989). Suomen varhaiskeskiajan lähteitä. Historian Aitta. p. 119.
  3. ^ About the association of the term Yem with Finns, see Suomen varhaiskeskiajan lähteitä. Historian aitta XXI. Gummerus kirjapaino Oy. Jyväskylä 1989. ISBN 951-96006-1-2.
  4. ^ Pirjo Uino: Ancient Karelia: Archaeological Studies. Helsinki 1997.
  5. ^ Nils Ahnlund, "Vreta klosters äldsta donatorer", Historisk tidskrift 65, 1945, p. 341.
  6. ^ a b c Hans Gillingstam (1977). "Kol". Svenskt biografiskt lexikon band 21. Archived from the original on 2013-10-12. Retrieved 2013-10-08.
  7. ^ a b Liljegren, Bengt (2004). Rulers of Sweden. Historiska Media. p. 34. ISBN 9185057630. Retrieved 2014-02-11. Kol was killed in a battle at Bjälbo in Östergötland in 1173 digitized July 9, 2008
  8. ^ a b Nils Ahnlund, "Till frågan om den äldsta Erikskulten i Sverige", Historisk tidskrift 68, 1948, p. 318.
  9. ^ Mats G. Larsson, Götarnas riken: Upptäcktsfärder till Sveriges enande. Stockholm: Atlantis, 2002, p. 185.
  10. ^ Hans Gillingstam, "Kol", Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sbl/Presentation.aspx?id=11708
  11. ^ Nils Ahnlund, "Vreta klosters äldsta donatorer", Historisk tidskrift 65, 1945, p. 321.
  12. ^ Vanderbilt, David (2018-10-31). Berry Phases in Electronic Structure Theory: Electric Polarization, Orbital Magnetization and Topological Insulators. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316662205. ISBN 978-1-316-66220-5.
  13. ^ Sinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.
  14. ^ Róna-Tas, András (1999). Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history. Translated by Bodoczky, Nicholas. Budapest New York: Central European Univ. Press. p. 97,319. ISBN 978-963-9116-48-1.
  15. ^ Sinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.
  16. ^ Skribnik, Elena; Laakso, Johanna (2022). "Ugric: General introduction". In Bakró-Nagy, Marianne; Laakso, Johanna; Skribnik, Elena K. (eds.). The Oxford guide to the Uralic languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 523–524. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198767664.003.0028. ISBN 978-0-19-876766-4.
  17. ^ Hajdú, Péter (1975). Finno-Ugrian Languages and Peoples. London: Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-96552-9.
  18. ^ a b c Wixman, Ronald (1984). The peoples of the USSR : an ethnographic handbook. Armonk, N.Y. : M.E. Sharpe. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-585-23536-3. Cite error: The named reference "USSR" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. ^ a b Vásáry, István (1982). "The 'Yugria' Problem". In Róna-Tas, András (ed.). Chuvash studies. Bibliotheca orientalis hungarica. Budapest: Akadémiai kiadó. pp. 250–251. ISBN 978-963-05-2851-1.
  20. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference hajdu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ Ahlqvist, August (1882). Tutkimus sivistyssanoista obilais-ugrilaisten kansojen kielissä (in Finnish). Frenckell. The German translation Über die Kulturwörter der obisch-ugrischen Sprachen was published posthumously in 1890.
  22. ^ Zeno. "Lexikoneintrag zu »Ugrische Völker«. Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon, Band 19. ..." www.zeno.org (in German). Retrieved 2024-02-10.
  23. ^ "Finno-Ugrian", 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. Volume 10, retrieved 2024-02-10 {{citation}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
  24. ^ Castren, Matthias Alexander (1857). Nordiska resor och forskningar: Ethnologiska föreläsningar öfver altaiska folken (in Swedish). Finska Litteratur-Sällskapets Tryckeri.
  25. ^ Praline 1969, p. 16.

References

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Groups of Finno-Ugric nations identified by language (west to east):
Pinks: Sami
Blues: Baltic Finns
Yellows and red: Volga Finns
Browns: Perm Finns

Finnic peoples

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The Finnic or Fennic peoples, sometimes simply called Finns, are the nations who [...], and which are thought to have originated in the region of the Volga River.

The scope of the terms "Finn" and "Finnic" varies by context. They can refer to the Baltic Finns of Finland, Scandinavia, Estonia and Northwest Russia. The broadest sense in the contemporary usage includes four groups:[1] the Baltic Finns, the Sami of northern Fennoscandia, and the Volga Finns and Perm Finns of Russia.[2] The last two include the Finnic peoples of the Komi-Permyak Okrug and the four Russian republics of Komi, Mari El, Mordovia and Udmurtia.[3] The largest Finnic peoples by population are the Finns (6 million), the Estonians (1 million), the Mordvins (800,000), the Mari (570,000), the Udmurts (550,000), the Komis (330,000) and the Sami (100,000).[4]

The Finnic peoples are sometimes called Finno-Ugric, uniting them with the Ugrians, or Uralic, uniting them also with the Samoyeds. These linguistic connections were discovered between the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries.[5]

Finnic peoples migrated westward from very approximately the Volga area into northwestern Russia and (first the Sami and then the Baltic Finns) into Scandinavia, though scholars dispute the timing. The ancestors of the Perm Finns moved north and east to the Kama and Vychegda rivers. Those Finnic peoples who remained in the Volga basin began to divide into their current diversity by the sixth century, and had coalesced into their current nations by the sixteenth.[citation needed]

Ugri

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First sources that mention the possible connection between the Hungarians and the Ob-Ugrians date from the 15th and 16th centuries. Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (later Pope Pius II) mentions in his Cosmographia that there exists an idol-worshipping people in Scythia, who speak "the same language" as the Hungarians. However, it is unclear whether this refers to the Yugra (the name for Ob-Ugrians in East Slavic chronicles). Clearer statements were made by Julius Pomponius Laetus and Maciej Miechowita, who


The name Uralic derives from the family's purported "original homeland" (Urheimat) hypothesized to have been somewhere in the vicinity of the Ural Mountains. It was first proposed as an ethnonym Uralier (in German) by Julius Klaproth in Asia Polyglotta (1823). The original conception did not include the Samoyed peoples.[6][7]

Sources

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Basic examples
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  • Potential step (evanescent wave only)
  • Step barrier and wave packet
  • Double quantum well
  • Hydrogen atom

Advanced

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Sources

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  • (Wolf, p.2) for continuity of the wave function despite the discontinuity of the potential
  • (Taylor [10]) Resonant tunneling - conduction in crystalline solids
  • (Taylor [8], Ch. 7.10, p.234) General concept of tunneling
  • (Girvin & Yang, Appendix) Tunneling between two quantum wells in second quantized language, hopping as tunneling p.117
  • Advanced bibliography: Kleinert 1995, pp. 794-6

Band theory

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Refs

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  1. ^ Golden, Peter B. (1994) [1990]. "The peoples of the Russian forest belt". In Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 230. ISBN 9780521243049.
  2. ^ Goldina, Ekaterina; Goldina, Rimma (2018). "On North-Western Contacts of Perm Finns in VII–VIII Centuries". Estonian Journal of Archaeology. 22 (2): 163–180. doi:10.3176/arch.2018.2.04. S2CID 166188106.
  3. ^ Lallukka, Seppo (1990). The East Finnic minorities in the Soviet Union. Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. ISBN 951-41-0616-4.
  4. ^ "Национальный состав населения по субъектам Российской Федерации". Archived from the original on 8 December 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2020.
  5. ^ "Uralic peoples". www.suri.ee. Archived from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
  6. ^ Klaproth, Julius (1823). Asia Polyglotta (in German). Paris: A. Schubart. p. 182.
  7. ^ Stipa, Günter Johannes (1990). Finnisch-ugrische Sprachforschung von der Renaissance bis zum Neupositivismus (PDF). Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia (in German). Vol. 206. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. p. 294.
  8. ^ Taylor, John R. (John Robert) (2004). Modern physics for scientists and engineers. Internet Archive. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-805715-2.

Medieval

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Westrogothian Rebellion

[edit]
  • Västgötaherrarnas' rebellion: [16] [17]
  • Västgötland rebellion: [18]

Refs

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  • Magnus Ladulås:

Comparison with Caroline Wilhelmsson

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etc

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Birger, likely born around the time of the Battle of Gestilren in 1210, spent his childhood and adolescence in Bjälbo, Östergötland. The exact date of his birth is uncertain and historical sources are contradictory, but examinations of his remains suggest he was around 50 years old at his death in 1266, which would indicate a birth year around 1216.[1] However, since his father, Magnus Minnesköld, is believed to have died no later than 1210, Birger's birth may have occurred a few years earlier.

Birger's lineage played a crucial role in his rise to power. His mother, Ingrid Ylva, was according to Olaus Petri a daughter of Sune Sik and the granddaughter of King Sverker I of Sweden. His brothers or half-brothers—Eskil, Karl, and Bengt [sv]—were born well before 1200, suggesting they likely had a different mother. Birger was named after his uncle, Jarl Birger Brosa, one of the most powerful men of the era, who died in 1202.[2]

Birger began his career in the mid-1230s, solidifying his position by marrying Ingeborg Eriksdotter, the sister of King Erik Eriksson, following intense competition with other suitors, as chronicled in the Chronicle of Erik (Erikskrönikan). This combination of family ties and strategic marriage would prove pivotal in his ascent to power.[2]

  1. ^ pronounced [l'ɑːdɵloːs]

INC

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The Inter-Nordic conflict of 1302–1319 was a long-term political and armed conflict between the king of Sweden, Birger Magnusson, and his younger brothers Duke Valdemar and Duke Erik. The conflict also involved the neighbouring kingdoms of Norway and Denmark, which were ruled by King Haakon Magnusson and King Valdemar Atterdag, respectively.[3][4][5]

Background

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Beginning of the conflict

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The Håtuna games

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in 1306, after Duke Erik and Valdemar had been at a wedding feast in Bjälbo, they met Birger at Håtuna Manor [sv]. After the brothers had met in Håtuna, Eric and Valdemar brought Birger to Nyköping, and took him as a prisoner for several years.

Birger was imprisoned from 1306 to 1308, he got freed after he had made plenty of promises, one of them being that Birger would give away half of his power over Sweden to his brothers in exchange of getting peace and truce with them.[3][4]

Aftermath

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In 1317, Birger Magnusson imprisoned his brothers Eric and Valdemar and let them starve to death. It is unclear when and where the brothers died. This action was done in revenge of what Birgers brothers had done against him in 1306, when Birger got imprisoned.[3][4][6]

See also

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Grand dukes

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NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Alexander I[7]
  • the Blessed
  • Александр I Павлович (Александр Благословенный)
23 December 1777
–
1 December 1825		23 March 18011 December 1825Son of Paul I and Maria Feodorovna
First Romanov King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Nicholas I[8]
  • Николай I Павлович
6 July 1796
–
2 March 1855		1 December 18252 March 1855Son of Paul I and Maria FeodorovnaHolstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Alexander II[9]
  • the Liberator
  • Александр II Николаевич (Александр Освободитель)
29 April 1818
–
13 March 1881		2 March 185513 March 1881Son of Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodrovna
Nephew of Alexander I
Assassinated		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Alexander III[10]
  • the Peacemaker
  • Александр III Александрович (Александр Миротворец)
10 March 1845
–
1 November 1894		13 March 18811 November 1894Son of Alexander II and Maria AlexandrovnaHolstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Saint Nicholas II[11]
  • Николай II Александрович
18 May 1868
–
17 July 1918		1 November 189415 March 1917Son of Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna
Abdicated the throne during the February Revolution
Murdered by the Bolsheviks		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov

References

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  1. ^ Upon examination of his bones in 2002, it was determined that Birger would have been just around 50 at the time of his death, about 10 years younger than previously believed. See Kari, Risto. Suomalaisten keskiaika. WSOY 2004. ISBN 951-0-28321-5. See page 119.
  2. ^ a b Lindström & Lindström 2006, pp. 191–193
  3. ^ a b c Lagerqvist, Sveriges regenter, pp. 69-70
  4. ^ a b c "Birger". sok.riksarkivet.se. Retrieved 2024-06-09.
  5. ^ Bratberg, Terje; Salvesen, Helge (2024-06-07), "Erik Magnusson", Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian), retrieved 2024-06-09
  6. ^ "Erik Magnusson | Historia | SO-rummet". www.so-rummet.se (in Swedish). 2024-06-03. Retrieved 2024-06-09.
  7. ^ Morby 2002, p. 169, Alexander I (son).
  8. ^ Morby 2002, p. 169, Nicholas I (brother).
  9. ^ Morby 2002, p. 169, Alexander II (son).
  10. ^ Morby 2002, p. 170, Alexander III (son).
  11. ^ Morby 2002, p. 170, Nicholas II (son; deposed, died 1918; provisional government, then Soviet rule).
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