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Description and core concepts

Main article: Lead climbing

'Lead climber' and 'belayer'

While rock climbing can be done alone — which is called solo climbing — or in groups, a key concept of rock climbing is that of the 'lead climbing pair'. One climber, the 'lead climber', attempts to climb the route and overcome its challenges, with a rope attached to their harness. The second climber, the 'belayer' (or 'second'), remains at the base of the route and controls the other end of the rope. The 'belayer' uses a belay device to attach the rope to their harness from which they can pay-out the rope as the 'lead climber' ascends and with which they can lock the rope if the 'lead climber' falls. Once the 'lead climber' reaches the top, they can then act as the 'belayer' (from above), controlling the rope while the other climber begins to ascend.

The second concept is related to the 'lead climbing pair' and is that of climbing protection. Early 20th-century rock climbers relied on the 'lead climber' looping the rope around spikes of rock as they ascended. If they fell, and the 'belayer' held the rope fast, the 'lead climber' would hang from the rope if it had stayed looped around a spike of rock — if it didn't, they would fall to the ground. Modern rock climbers use mechanical 'protection devices' placed on the face of the route, into which the 'lead climber' clips the rope as they ascend; if they fall, and the 'belayer' locks the rope, the 'lead climber' will hang from the last 'protection device' they had clipped the rope into. This protection can be removable (traditional climbing), or permanently in-situ (sport climbing).

Types of routes

Main article: Climbing route

Natural outdoor

Examples of rock climbing routes

Smooth slate slabs with no hand-holds

Overhanging limestone walls with one-finger pocket-holds

Granite roofs with large cracks, Separate Reality.

Big-wall sedimentary rock faces

Rock climbing routes cover a wide range of heights from a few metres to over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The higher the route, the greater the danger and the greater range of techniques and equipment needed, however, the difficulty of a route is not correlated to its height. Climbers have spent just as many years trying to ascend 4-metre (13 ft) routes such as Burden of Dreams as they have on 1,000-metre (3,300 ft) routes like The Nose.

Famous routes have been created on almost every climbable rock type including granite, which is noted for its grip and large crack systems (e.g. El Capitan), limestone, which is known for its small detailed holds and cracks (e.g Malham Cove and the Verdon Gorge) and sandstone, which can create dramatic sculpted features (e.g. Indian Creek and Saxon Switzerland).

Climbers also differentiate routes by the types of challenges encountered. Some of the earliest rock climbs were smooth off-vertical 'slab climbs' where balance and grip were the key. Climbers then learned the vertical 'crack climb' techniques, including laybacking and finger/hand jamming, which dominated the hardest routes. Climbers then took on almost 'blank' vertical 'face climbs' with tiny holds, sometimes just one-fingered pockets, that required bolts drilled into the rock for their climbing protection. Eventually, they migrated to routes that were also severely — and sometimes continually — overhanging, with such a dearth of even tiny holds that the climber had to jump (called a dyno) from hold to hold.

Artificial indoor

Indoor climbing environments

World Cup

Exotic bouldering walls

In 1964, an artificial indoor climbing wall built in a corridor of Leeds University produced climbers who, after almost exclusively training for years as students on these walls, could climb the hardest routes in Britain when they ventured into the wider outdoor environment. This led to an explosion in indoor climbing that was further amplified by the rise of bolted sport climbing and bouldering, which are also suited to indoor climbing.

Modern indoor climbing walls and climbing gyms include artificial resin versions of almost every type of obstacle encountered in the outside natural environment. As most competition climbing events are now held on indoor walls, most modern rock climbers have spent their careers training and competing on artificial indoor surfaces. Modern indoor walls have their routes graded in the same manner as outdoor natural routes.

Recording of routes

The ever-increasing range of new rock climbing routes is chronicled and recorded via specialist diagrams called topos, which are collated in climbing guidebooks and more latterly on large online climbing databases (e.g. theCrag.com and MountainProject.com). The individual moves needed to complete a rock climbing route are called the beta, and popular rock climbing routes have detailed step-by-step video guides of their beta available online.

Types of rock climbing

The sport of rock climbing covers a range of types that vary with the style being adopted on the specific climbing route, the length and number of pitches of the route, the level and type of climbing protection that will be employed on the route, and whether the climb is in a competition climbing format.

A climb will involve a combination of these types which will vary depending on the skill and risk appetite of the climber(s). For example, the famous El Capitan route Freerider requires big wall climbing techniques as it is over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) high. It can be ascended using aid climbing (on either all or just on the hardest parts) or it can be free climbed. As Freerider is not bolted it requires traditional climbing protection, and while it is most commonly done by pairs using lead climbing, it has been free solo climbed and rope solo climbed, and simul climbed (for setting speed climbing records).

Depending on style

In rock climbing, "style" principally refers to whether the climber used artificial aid to help them ascend the route, which is called aid climbing, or whether they used no aid, which is called free climbing. Devices that are used only for climbing protection are not considered aid. Climbers who ascend a new route using aid have made a first ascent (FA), whereas climbers who do it without aid have made the more coveted first free ascent (FFA).

A further refinement of "style" is a free climb by a climber who had never seen the route before, and had never been told about its challenges (called the beta), and completed it on the first attempt, which is called an onsight. Where they had never seen it but had been given beta on it, it is called a flash. A free climb where the climber attempts the route many times before ascending it is called a redpoint. Most major new FFAs are done as redpoints.

Depending on length

The length of the climbing route influences the type of rock climbing techniques that are used, and the following distinctions are made:

• Bouldering. This involves short routes of up to circa 5 metres (16 ft) in height so that no climbing protection is needed outside of bouldering mats. Typically these are actual boulders (e.g. Dreamtime) but any short route can be called "bouldering". Highball bouldering routes are up to circa 10–12 metres (33–39 ft) in height and therefore any fall can be more serious, and the climber is now getting into the realm of free soloing.

• Single pitch climbing. This involves routes that are above bouldering height and are up to a single climbing rope length in height, which is about circa 60–70 metres (200–230 ft); in practice, single-pitch climbing tends to be on routes of 25–35 metres (82–115 ft) in height (e.g. Action Directe), and is the most common form of rock climbing in lead climbing. New grade milestones in rock climbing are set on single-pitch climbs.

• Multi-pitch climbing. This involves routes that are multiple pitches in length and therefore will require more complicated techniques to ascend safely. A further distinction is made for very sheer routes over 300–500 metres (980–1,640 ft) in length where the climber(s) are continually "hanging" from the face (e.g. The Nose), which is called big wall climbing. Alpine climbing can involve extensive use of rock climbing on very long mountainous routes.

Depending on protection

The type of climbing protection also influences the type of rock climbing techniques that are used, and the following distinctions are made:

In free climbing

• Free solo climbing. This involves climbing alone and with no climbing protection and thus any fall will be serious and even fatal. In theory, all bouldering is free soloing but the term is usually used for single-pitch climbing and multi-pitch climbing. Free solo climbing came to worldwide attention when Alex Honnold free soloed the famous big wall climbing route, Freerider on El Capitan, as featured in the Oscar-winning film, Free Solo.

• Deep-water soloing. This is a sub-class of free solo climbing that is done on single-pitch routes that are above water. In theory, any fall should be less serious as the climber will land in the water, although it has led to fatalities. The sport came to wider attention with the ascent by Chris Sharma of the dramatic sea-arch of Es Pontàs in 2006, which was at the time qualified it as one of the world's hardest rock climbs.

• Lead climbing. This involves climbing in pairs with a 'lead climber', who does the climbing, and a 'belayer' (or 'second'), who holds the rope. Lead climbing is used in single-pitch and multi-pitch climbing, and for multi-pitch routes, the team can alternate the roles. The pair are connected by the climbing rope and the belayer uses belay devices to control the rope. How the rope is attached to the rock face, depends on the following:

• Sport climbing. Here, the climbing protection has already been permanently drilled into the rock face in the form of bolts. The 'lead climber' just clips their rope into these bolts using quickdraws as they ascend. Sport climbing developed in the 1980s when French climbers wanted to climb "blank" rock faces with no features (i.e. cracks) into which to insert the temporary protection used in traditional climbing.

• Traditional climbing. Here, the 'lead climber' inserts temporary (or removable) climbing protection as they ascend the route. There are many types of temporary protection including passive equipment (e.g. nuts and hexes), and active protection (e.g. SLCDs). Traditional is harder than sport climbing as finding suitable places in which to insert the protection drains energy, and poor placements can lead to the protection failing.

• Rope solo climbing. This is where a 'lead climber' climbs alone and replaces their 'belayer' with a progress capture device (PCD) that will lock the rope — in the manner of a 'belayer' — if they fall. Rope solo climbing is an advanced technique that is difficult to do properly, carries significantly greater risk as PCDs can fail to lock, and requires significantly greater energy as the climber needs to ascend any pitch several times.

• Simul climbing. Here, both of the climbers in a 'lead climbing pair' move together and dispense with the traditional set-up of a 'lead climber' doing the climbing while the 'belayer' controls the rope. The pair use many PCDs to lock the rope in case one or both of them fall. Simil climbing is used to move faster on multi-pitch climbing routes, and for setting speed climbing records. It is an advanced technique with significant risks.

In non-free climbing

• Top rope climbing. This is normally done in pairs but where the rope runs from the belayer through a fixed anchor at the top of the route, and back down to the climber. If the climber falls, the belayer locks the rope, and they will just hang from the rope at the point of the fall. Top rope climbing is not free climbing or lead climbing, however, it is the most popular way for beginners to learn how to rock climb single and multi-pitch routes.

• Top rope solo climbing. This is a solo climbing variant of top roping where the climber uses a progress capture device (PCD) that will automatically lock the rope if the climber falls (in the manner of a belayer). Unlike top-rope climbing, top-rope solo climbing is not considered a novice activity, and there have been fatalities where the PCD did not automatically lock and the climber fell to the ground; it is used in big wall climbing.

• Aid climbing. Modern aid climbing is typically used on big wall climbing and alpine climbing routes where the level of difficulty is not uniform, and a given pitch might require aid climbing techniques to overcome its challenges. A notable example is The Nose on El Capitan which can be climbed by strong big wall climbers using aid techniques on some pitches, but only a handful of the world's leading climbers have completely free climbed it.

Competition climbing

With the development of the safer form of sport climbing in the 1980s, lead climbing competitions on bolted artificial climbing walls became popular. The UIAA created the International Council for Competition Climbing (ICCC) to regulate and govern the emerging sport of competition climbing and added competitions in bouldering and in speed climbing. The sport has become an Olympic medal event with the following disciplines:

• Competition lead climbing. Competitors start at the bottom of a pre-bolted artificial sport-climbing route and lead-climb to touch or secure the highest climbing hold possible within a set time limit on a single attempt, making sure to clip the rope into pre-placed quickdraws while ascending.

• Competition bouldering. Competitors climb short bouldering problems without a rope, with an emphasis on the number of problems completed, and the attempts necessary to do so. The problems tend to be harder than in competition lead climbing and involve very dynamic moves.

• Competition speed climbing. Competitors race-off in pairs on a standardised 'speed climbing wall' using a top rope with an auto belay for protection, in the shortest time possible. Because the wall is standardized in all competitions, various time records are set and chronicled.

Equipment

Main article: Rock-climbing equipment

Rock climber with a helmet, harness & rope, and a traditional climbing "rack" of protection devices on their harness and additional gear sling, which contains SLCDs, nuts, a tricam, and quickdraws

The rock-climbing equipment need varies quite significantly with the route that is being undertaken and the type of climbing that is being followed. For example, bouldering needs the least equipment outside of climbing shoes, climbing chalk and optional crash pads. Sport climbing adds ropes, harnesses, belay devices, and quickdraws to clip into pre-drilled bolts. Traditional climbing adds the need to carry a "rack" of temporary passive and active protection devices. Multi-pitch climbing, and the related big wall climbing, adds devices to assist in ascending and descending fixed ropes. Finally, aid climbing uses unique equipment to give mechanical assistance to the climber in their upward movement (e.g. aiders).

The equipment used in rock climbing can be grouped into the following categories:

• Ropes and slings. Modern climbing ropes are 50–80 metres (160–260 ft) in length can be dynamic ropes, which can stretch to absorb the energy of a falling climber, or are the less expensive but more hard-wearing static ropes for fixed ropeing. Double ropes are used to reduce rope drag.

• Rope connectors. Various devices are used to connect items to climbing ropes and slings including carabiners and quickdraws, lanyard and personal anchor systems, and also the climbing harness which connects the climber themselves to their rope.

• Rope devices. Devices are available for controlling the movement of a dynamic rope (e.g. belay devices and self-locking devices), for moving up a fixed rope (e.g. ascenders, or for moving down a fixed rope (e.g. Descenders or abseil devices).

• Protection devices. Temporary protection is used in traditional climbing and splits into active devices (mainly spring-loaded camming devices or SLCDs) and passive devices (mainly nuts and hexes). Fixed protection devices are used in sport and aid climbing, and are mainly bolts and pitons.

• Aid climbing equipment. Aiders and daisy chains act like ladders for the aid climber. These aiders are clipped into the protection devices (see above), however, aid climbers can also hammer into the rock additional options like copperheads and hooks.

• Clothing. Modern climbing shoes give rock climbers increased grip and ability to step onto and hold tiny 'edges' (called edging). Climbers also use climbing helmets (especially in multi-pitch climbing), and specialized equipment such as belay gloves and belay glasses when belaying.

• Miscellaneous. One of the most distinctive aspects of modern rock climbing is the use of climbing chalk for grip and medical tape for skin wear. Once controversial, the use of knee pads and ground coverage from bouldering mats have not become commonplace at climbing venues.

• Training. One of the key elements in the development of standards and grade milestones has come from novel training tools starting with the bachar ladder and hangboard, which evolved into plyometric training tools such as the campus board and the MoonBoard.

Techniques

The development of rock-climbing techniques was as important as the development of rock-climbing equipment in increasing standards and reaching new grade milestones. Several techniques were particularly notable for their impact on the sport and are key techniques for any aspiring rock climber to master. Their introduction has a major impact on the sport, and most of them continue to be developed and refined on the hardest rock climbing routes.

Laybacking, bridging & chimneying

Laybacking

Bridging

Early rock climbers distinguished themselves from mountaineering techniques by executing a 'layback' (see image) which involves using the legs and arms in opposing forces to ascend via large cracks and corners (or dihedrals) on early climbing routes.

Ascending corners can naturally lead to the related technique of 'bridging' (or 'stemming'), which involves spreading the legs to gain traction on opposite walls. Where the walls are completely opposing, the technique becomes 'chimneying'.

These techniques enabled rock climbers to ascend dramatic new types of routes such as Cenotaph Corner .....

Jamming

Arm jamming

Finger jamming

This involves placing — or "jamming" — the climber's body parts into cracks in the rock which they then pull on to gain upward momentum. Jamming created a revolution in standards on 'crack climbing' routes, and climbers developed the technique for almost every body part, including the "body jam" (i.e. the whole body in the crack), the "arm jam", the "hand/fist jam", and the "finger jam".

Jamming techniques were famously used on the massive granite cracks of El Capitan, but also the tiny limestone cracks of

Crimping, edging and smearing

Crimping

Crimping and edging

'Crimping' means holding the fingers in a tight line to hold onto the smallest horizontal holds, while 'edging' involves a similar process but with the "edges" of the climbing shoe. 'Smearing' involves using the rubber grip of the climbing shoes to "walk up the face".

These three techniques are commonly used in 'face climbing' and 'slab climbing' where there are no big features on which to layback or bridge, and no cracks in which to jam, and also in traversing. The hardest modern routes involve these techniques.

Hooking

Toe hooking

Heel hooking

'Hooking' involves using the legs and feet to grab — or "hook" — onto features on the rock. Whilst hooking is a long-standing technique in rock climbing, competition climbers need to be able to master every type of hook including "toe hooks", "heel hooks" and "leg hooks" when trying to overcome the challenges of route setters, who have developed particular challenges on artificial climbing walls that can only be overcome with accurate hooking technique.

Advanced

The development of modern and often severely overhanging routes (and roofs) — which are now almost the standard in the leading competition lead climbing events — has led to increases in the following specific techniques:

• Drop knee
• Dyno moves
• Figure four move
• Gaston
• Side pull
• One-finger

Grading

Main article: Grade (climbing)

Climbing routes in rock climbing are given a grade that reflects the technical difficulty—and in some cases the risks and commitment level—of the route. The first ascensionist can suggest a grade, but it will be amended to reflect the consensus view of subsequent ascents, and recorded in online databased or physical guidebooks. While many countries with a strong tradition of climbing developed their own grading systems, a small number of grading systems have become internationally dominant for each type of climbing, which has contributed to the standardization of grades worldwide.

Silence is 9c (French), 5.15d (American YDS), and XII+ (UIAA)

For free climbing — in both traditional and sport climbing formats — the most dominant worldwide grading systems are the French system (e.g. ... 6b, 6c, 7a, 7b, 7c, ...), and the American system (e.g. ... 5.9, 5.10a, 5.10b, 5.10c, 5.10d, 5.11a, ...). The UIAA system (e.g. ... VII, VIII, IX, X, ...) is also popular in Germany and large parts of central Europe. Above the lowest grades, these three systems can also be exactly aligned at each level. For example, Silence is graded 9c (French), 5.15d (American YDS), and XII+ (UIAA).

Dreamtime, the diagonal green line, is 8C (Font) and V15 (V-grade)

For bouldering, the most dominant worldwide grading systems are the French Font system (e.g. ... 6B, 6C, 7A, 7B, 7C, ...), and the American V-grade system (e.g. ... V5, V6, V7, V8, V9, ...). Above the lowest bouldering grades, the two systems can be exactly aligned at each level, and are often both quoted. For example, Dreamtime is graded 8C (in the French Font-grade) and V15 (in the American V-grade).

It is common — particularly at higher grades — for free climbers to describe the hardest — or crux — moves in terms of the equivalent bouldering grade. For example, Adam Ondra described the crux of his notable 2017 route Silence in the following terms: "Then comes the crux boulder problem, 10 moves of 8C [French boulder]. And when I say 8C boulder problem, I really mean it. ... I reckon just linking 8C [French boulder] into 8B [French boulder] into 7C [French boulder] is a 9b+ [French] sport climb, I'm pretty sure about that".

Tables have been produced to align bouldering grades with an equivalent technical free climbing grade, which roughly equate the bouldering grades of 7A (V6) with the free climbing grades of 9a (5.11, IX).

Evolution of grade milestones

Main article: List of grade milestones in rock climbing

The history of rock climbing is closely related to the evolution of grade milestones which have consistently risen as a result of ever-improving climbing techniques and equipment. Grade milestones are chronicled for various types of rock climbing, and are often split by gender; one of the interesting developments in modern rock climbing is that the highest female grade milestones are only a level or two below the highest male grade milestones.

As of September 2024, the following milestones are recognized (only the first person to achieve the milestone is shown):

• For single-pitch climbing:

• Hardest lead sport climbing redpoint:

• For men: 9c (5.15d), the first being Adam Ondra in 2017 on Silence
• For women: 9b (5.15b), the first being Angela Eiter in 2017 on La Planta de Shiva

• Hardest lead sport climbing onsight/flash:

• For men: 9a+ (5.15a), the first and only being Adam Ondra in 2018 on Super Crackinette (as a flash)
• For women: 8c (5.14b), the first being Janja Garnbret in 2015 on La Fabelita (as a flash)

• Hardest lead traditional climbing redpoint:

• For men: 9a (5.14d), the first being Jacopo Larcher in 2019 on Tribe
• For women: 8c+ (5.14c), the first being Beth Rodden in 2008 on Meltdown

• Hardest free solo for men: 8c (5.14b), the first and only being Alfredo Webber in 2021 on Panem et Circenses

• For multi-pitch climbing:

• Hardest lead sport climbing redpoint:

• For men: 9a (5.14d), the first being Tommy Caldwell and Kevin Jorgeson in 2015 on The Dawn Wall
• For women: 8b+ (5.14a), the first being Lynn Hill in 1993 on The Nose

• Hardest free solo for men: 7c+ (5.13a), the first and only being Alex Honnold in 2017 on Freerider

• Hardest bouldering problem solved:

• For men: 9A (V17), the first being Nalle Hukkataival in 2016 on Burden of Dreams
• For women: 8C+ (V16), the first and only being Katie Lamb in 2023 on Box Therapy

Ethics

• Aid vs Free

• Bolting / Retro-bolting

• Clean aid

• Chipping

• Environmental / Clean climbing

History

Main article: History of rock climbing