User:Abbieloring/sandbox.group.herpetologist

Week 13

Abbie Loring

Finally got my picture in the right spot!!!! (Thanks Ian)

Added a few small edits--linked to poisonous amphibians and nocturnal page, and switched the order of the nictitating membrane and 'completely green' sentences.

Behavior

red eyed tree frogs are actually not poisonous, and rely on camouflage to protect themselves. They are nocturnal, sleeping for most of the day. In order to hide from predators, they cover their blue sides with their back legs, tuck their bright feet under their bellies, and shut their red eyes. Thus, they appear almost completely green, and well hidden among the foliage. They do not have a true eyelid, but rather a Nictitating membrane that allows light to enter the eye so that they will awaken when predators are approaching.

Olunia Palenga

All edits posted to the Axolotl Wikipedia page! I also added some edits mentioned in my sandbox Knowl8dge/Draftarticlesherpetology

I moved a few images in the Axolotl page that were present already to better fit the material, and I moved the neoteny section to the "use as model organism".

Week 12 edits

Abbie Loring

I added sources that were missing from the reproduction section, and deleted information that I couldn't find a source for. I also reworded some awkward sections.

I copied over all of my edits to the actual Agalychnis callidryas Wikipedia page except the photo which I can't get it in the right spot!!!!

Changes for this week are in bold.

Reproduction

Although random mating in Agalychnis callidryas has been documented, studies have shown that the an increased body size is an indicator of male quality while looking for a mate. During the mating season, the male frogs shake the branches where they are sitting to improve their chances of finding a mate by keeping rivals at bay. This is the first evidence that tree-dwelling vertebrates use vibration to communicate. When rainfall is at its highest, a male red-eyed treefrog calls "chack" to get the attention of the female. Females use the call, as well as color (specifically, the stripped sides) of the male frog, in order to find a possible mate. Both the call and color of the male frog show territorial display, and anti-predatory behavior. During amplexus, the female carries the male on her back for several hours during the oviposition process. Because of external egg fertilization, there is still risk of competition even after a female has selected a mate. There is not sperm priority in Agalychnis callidryas, and so a single clutch of eggs may have been fertilized by multiple males. The female chooses a leaf above a pond or large puddle on which to lay her clutch of roughly 40 eggs. Since oviposition generally occurs on both sides of a leaf, red-eyed treefrogs may fold the leaf to hide the eggs from predators. They also produce sticky jelly to glue the eggs together; this may protect the eggs from splitting and dehydration.

Kelly Brown

Edits that I made:

• I editing spacing that was weird in my article
• I edited the caption of the picture I added of the Green Sea Turtle last week
• Reformat pictures to include three instead of two
• Reworded a few sentences to make them flow better

New Draft:

Anatomy and morphology

Turtle anatomy includes both an internal and external skeleton. The external skeleton is comprised of a bony shell which serves as protection. The Internal skeleton makes up structures such as the flippers, and facilitates the anchoring of muscles. There are two main suborders of turtles, Pleurodira and Cryptodires, which are mainly differentiated based on their neck retraction method. These two groups also show slight differences in the anatomy of the head.

Head

The size and shape of turtle's heads differ between the suborder, Pleurodira and Cryptodires, but they are made up of the same bony structures. The anatomical differences are attributed to a difference in the bones that the jaw musculature associates with. The adductor muscles in the lower jaw create a pulley-like system in both subgroups; however the bone in which the muscles articulate with differ. In Pleurodira, the pulley is formed with the pterygoid bones, but in Cryptodires the pulley is formed with the quadrate bones. Both of these systems help to vertically redirect the adductor muscles in order to create a powerful bite.

Turtles appear to have lost their teeth about 150–200 million years ago. So instead of having teeth, turtles use their rigid beak-like mouth, jaws, and horny ridges on their upper and lower jaws to tear and chew food. Turtles with a more carnivorous diet typically have knife-sharp ridges, whereas herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges. Turtles also use their tongues to aid in swallowing.

The positioning of turtle's eyes on their head depends largely on their environment and lifestyle. Turtles that spend most of their life on land typically have eyes positioned in the middle of the head on either side to allow the turtle to look down at what is in front of them. Aquatic turtles that emerge only the top of their head from the water to look out for predators, like snapping turtles, have eyes towards the top of their head.

Neck retraction

Neck retraction

Pleurodires retract their neck sideways

Cryptodires retract their neck backwards

Cryptodire ventral view of S-shaped cervical vertebrae

The way a turtle retracts its neck into it's shell differentiates it into one of the two suborders, Pleurodira or Cryptodire. Pleurodira retract their neck laterally to the side and anterior to shoulder girdles. However, the suborder Cryptodira retracts their neck back into their shell by bending their neck in an S-like shape. These motions are largely due to the morphology and arrangement of cervical vertebrae. The cervical column consists of nine joints and eight independent vertebrae. These vertebrae are round and not fused, making the neck more flexible and allowing it to bend backwards and sideways. The primary function and evolutionary implication of neck retraction is thought to be for feeding rather than protection. Neck retraction and extension allow the turtle to reach out further to capture prey while swimming. Neck extension creates suction when the head is thrust forward and the oropharynx is expanded. This morphology suggests the retraction function is for feeding purposes, as the suction helps catch prey.

Skeleton of snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina)

Shell

Main article: Turtle shell

The top, or dorsal portion of the shell is called the carapace and the bottom, or ventral part of the shell is the plastron. Bony structures called bridges connect the carapace and plastron together. The inside of the shell is composed of many bones including ribs and vertebrae, whereas the outside is composed of scutes. Scutes are a keratinized part of the epidermis and are similar in structure to scales of other reptiles.

The shell has many functions which include protection from predators, a home, fat and calcium storage, as well as a pH buffer. Each unique species may have a specific function or slightly different anatomy based on its lifestyle and environment.

Aquatic turtles have a lighter shell than turtles that live primarily on land in order to float and swim faster. On the other hand, tortoises have thick, heavy shells in order to prevent predators from eating or crushing them.

Respiration

Respiration for many amniotes, is achieved by the contraction and relaxation of specific muscle groups (i.e. intercostals, abdominal muscles, and/or a diaphragm) attached to an internal rib-cage that can expand or contract the body wall thus assisting airflow in and out of the lungs. The ribs of Testudines, however, are fused with their carapace and external to their pelvic and pectoral girdles, a feature unique among turtles. Their rigid shell is not capable of expansion, so Testudines have had to evolve special adaptations for respiration. Turtle pulmonary ventilation occurs by using specific groups of abdominal muscles attached to their viscera and shell that pull the lungs ventrally during inspiration, where air is drawn in via a negative pressure gradient (Boyle's Law). In expiration, the contraction of the transversus abdominis is the driving force by propelling the viscera into the lungs and expelling air under positive pressure. Conversely, the relaxing and flattening of the oblique abdominis muscle pulls the transversus back down, which again draws air back into the lungs. Important auxiliary muscles used for ventilatory processes are the pectoralis, which is used in conjunction with the transverse abdominis during inspiration, and the serratus, which moves with the abdominal oblique accompanying expiration.

The lungs of Testudines are multi-chambered and attach the entire length down the carapace. The number of chambers can vary between taxa, though most commonly they have three lateral chambers, three medial chambers, and one terminal chamber. As previously mentioned, the act of specific abdominal muscles pulling down the viscera (or pushing back up) is what allows for respiration in turtles. Specifically, it is the turtles large liver that pulls or pushes on the lungs. Ventral to the lungs, in the coelomic cavity, the liver of turtles is attached directly to the right lung, and their stomach is directly attached to the left lung by the ventral mesopneumonium, which is attached to their liver by the ventral mesentery. When the liver is pulled down, inspiration begins. Supporting the lungs is the post-pulmonary septum, which is found in all Testudines, and is thought to prevent the lungs from collapsing.

Close up of a Green Sea Turtle's (Chelonia mynas), skin and shell scales

Skin and molting

Turtles are covered in scales, however the scales on the shell differ from those on the rest of the body. The shell is made of scutes, but the rest of the body is covered in smaller keratinized scales. Molting in turtles does not occur like it does in snakes, all at once, but rather in flakes. Dead skin falls off in smaller sheets instead of molting as one large layer.

Limbs

The anatomy of the limbs and feet are a distinguishing factor between aquatic turtles and terrestrial tortoises. The differences are due to the distinct functions of the limbs, swimming in aquatic turtles and supports and walking for terrestrial turtles.

Olunia Palenga

Edits made in Week 13 Lab:

Introduction

The last sentence of the Introduction paragraph needed to be updated and edited, including a citation:

Mexico City began a refuge project on conserving axolotls by building "axolotl shelters" to preserve the remaining and potential habitats, although this project was retired. (I cannot include the exact citation of this information because Wikipedia is claiming that this cite is on their "blacklist").

-I have decided not to include this section and remove it from the page because there is not a reliable source.

Description

Axolotls possess features typical of salamander larvae, including external gills and a caudal fin extending from behind the head to the vent. External gills are usually lost when when salamander species mature into adulthood, although the Axolotl maintains this feature. This is due to their neoteny evolution, where Axolotls are much more aquatic than other salamander species.

- I included the last sentence and citation

Draft 2

Abbie Loring

Words and phrases in bold are my proposed additions, everything else is from the original article.

Description

This species has large, bright red eyes with vertically narrowed pupils. The red eyed tree frog is very colorful, with a vibrant green body, yellow and blue vertical stripes along its side, a white underside, and brightly colored orange or red feet. Additionally, they have sticky pads on their toes that allow them to cling onto leaves . The skin on the red-eyed treefrog's belly is soft and fragile, whereas the back is thicker and rougher. On average, the males are about two inches long, and the females are slightly bigger at around 3 inches.

Distribution and habitat

Red-eyed treefrogs inhabit areas near rivers and ponds in rainforests and humid lowlands on the Atlantic slopes from southern Veracruz and northern Oaxaca in Mexico, to central Panama and northern Colombia. They also live on the Pacific slope in southwestern Nicaragua and southwestern Costa Rica to eastern Panama. The optimum temperature for red-eyed treefrogs is 24–29 °C (75–84 °F) in the daytime, and 19–25 °C (66–77 °F) at night. Agalychnis callidryas also require high humidity levels of at least 80%.

Behavior

An image of the nictitating membrane seen in Red Eyed Tree Frogs.

Phyllomedusine treefrogs are arboreal, meaning they spend a majority of their lives in trees; they are excellent jumpers. Despite their bright coloring, red-eyed treefrogs are actually not poisonous, and rely on camouflage to protect themselves. During the day, they remain motionless, cover their blue sides with their back legs, tuck their bright feet under their bellies, and shut their red eyes. They do not have a true eyelid, but rather a Nictitating membrane that allows light to enter the eye so that they will awaken when predators are approaching. Thus, they appear almost completely green, and well hidden among the foliage. Their large red eyes not only aid in their ability to see at night, but also serve as a defensive adaptation through deimatic behaviour. When a red-eyed treefrog detects an approaching predator, it abruptly opens its eyes and stares at the predator. The sudden appearance of the red eyes may startle the predator, giving the frog a chance to flee.

Diet

Red-eyed treefrogs are insectivores, eating crickets, moths, grasshoppers, flies, and other insects. Sometimes, they eat smaller frogs. Tadpoles mostly eat fruit flies and pinhead crickets.

Reproduction

It has been proven that even though random mating has been documented, through different studies that were done a males body size has been an indicator of male quality while looking for a mate. The larger the frog signifies older age which can reflect a better partner. During the mating season, the male frogs shake the branches where they are sitting to improve their chances of finding a mate by keeping rivals at bay. This is the first evidence that tree-dwelling vertebrates use vibration to communicate. When rainfall is at its highest, a male red-eyed treefrog calls "chack" to get the attention of the female. Females use the call, as well as color of the male frog, in order to find a possible mate. Both the call and color of the male frog show territorial display, and anti-predatory behavior. During amplexus, the female carries the male on her back for several hours during the oviposition process. Because of external egg fertilization, there is still risk of competition even after a female has selected a mate. There is not sperm priority in Agalychnis callidryas, and so a single clutch of eggs may have been fertilized by multiple males. The female chooses a leaf above a pond or large puddle on which to lay her clutch of roughly 40 eggs. Since oviposition generally occurs on both sides of a leaf, red-eyed treefrogs may fold the leaf to hide the eggs from predators. They also produce sticky jelly to glue the eggs together; this may protect the eggs from splitting and dehydration.

The eggs develop into tadpoles, which hatch after six to seven days and fall into the water below. Red eyed tree frog embryos use natural day and night light cycles as a signal for when to hatch, and tend to hatch just after nightfall. Red-eyed treefrog eggs may hatch early (exhibiting phenotypic plasticity) when a change in the environment signals a danger to their survival. Dragonflies, fish, and water beetles prey on the tadpoles. The tadpoles remain in the water from three weeks to several months, until they metamorphose into frogs. The time of metamorphosis depends on duration of larval stage, which varies depending on environment. After metamorphosis, the color of tadpoles' torsos changes from green to brown, and their eyes, which are initially yellow, turn into deep red without much side patterning. These changes mark maturity. The lifespan of red-eyed treefrogs is about five years.

Young frogs that survive the first few weeks after metamorphosis move into the undergrowth and security of plants near their natal pools, often into the hollows of tubular plants such as bromeliads. Young frogs prey on very small flies and other insects during the first months of their lives. The young mature after two years and begin mating at the age of three to four years. These treefrogs are known to live up to five years (data from captive-breeding programs), depending on the health and conditions of their habitat (when aided by abundant plant growth, plenty of fresh water, and an abundance of small and larger insects on which to prey).

They sometimes breed successfully in captivity if kept in high-humidity vivaria (e.g., by using misting equipment), tropical plants such as Bromelia and other epiphyte plants, together with well-aerated water pools. Their captive habitat should have a light cycle with 11–12 hours of daylight and an average day temperature of is 26–28 °C (79–82 °F) and night-time averages of is 22–25 °C (72–77 °F). Simulating a rainy season once a year in November to December encourages reproduction.

Phenotypic plasticity

Main article: Phenotypic plasticity

Red-eyed treefrogs' embryos exhibit phenotypic plasticity, hatching early in response to disturbance to protect themselves. Though embryos are bred synchronously, they normally hatch after 6 to 10 days from oviposition without disturbance. However, a simultaneously early hatching in entire clutches is triggered when embryos are exposed to their predators or threatening environmental changes such as rainstorm and flood. Early hatching has also been linked with egg dehydration, hatching earlier in dry egg clutches than in wet ones.

Predators are the major cause of this response. Since these frogs usually lay eggs on both the upper and the undersides of leaves above ponds, clutches need to protect themselves against arboreal, aerial and aquatic predators, such as snakes, dragonflies, fish, monkeys, and pathogenic fungi. When predators are close enough to produce detectable vibration, the embryos assess disturbance. After a few seconds, embryos vigorously hatch out into tadpoles and spread out to escape. Since eggs are usually laid above ponds, the response improves survival because tadpoles often fall into water on hatching. When tadpoles fall onto dry ground, they can survive up to 20 hours without water. However, vibration and disturbance caused by unthreatening environmental changes or other species do not induce early hatching.

Anatomy and morphology

Turtle anatomy includes both an internal and external skeleton. The external skeleton is comprised of a bony shell which serves as protection. The Internal skeleton makes up structures such as the flippers, and facilitates the anchoring of muscles. There are two main suborders of turtles, Pleurodira and Cryptodires, which are mainly differentiated based on neck retraction. These two groups also show slight differences in the anatomy of the head.

Head

The size and shape of turtle's heads differ between the subgroups, Pleurodira and Cryptodires, but they are made up of the same bony structures. The anatomical differences are attributed to a difference in the bones that the jaw musculature associates with. The adductor muscles in the lower jaw create a pulley-like system in both subgroups; however the bone in muscles articulate with differ. In Pleurodira, the pulley is formed with the pterygoid bones, but in Cryptodires the pulley is formed with the quadrate bones. Both of these systems help to vertically redirect the adductor muscles in order to create a powerful bite.

Turtles appear to have lost their teeth about 150–200 million years ago. So instead of having teeth, turtles use their rigid beak-like mouth, jaws, and horny ridges on their upper and lower jaws to tear and chew food. Turtles with a more carnivorous diet typically have knife-sharp ridges, whereas herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges. Turtles use their tongues to aid in swallowing.

The positioning of turtle's eyes on their head depends largely on their environment and lifestyle. Turtles that spend most of their life on land typically have eyes positioned in the middle of the head on either side to allow the turtle to look down at what is in front of them. Aquatic turtles that emerge only the top of their head from the water to look out for predators, like snapping turtles, have eyes towards the top of their head.

Neck retraction

Neck retraction

Pleurodires retract their neck sideways

Cryptodires retract their neck backwards

The mechanism of which a turtle retracts its neck differentiates it into one of the two suborders, Pleurodira or Cryptodire. Pleurodira retract their neck laterally to the side and anterior to shoulder girdles. However, the suborder Cryptodira retracts their neck back into their shell by bending their neck in an S-like shape. These motions are largely due to the morphology and arrangement of cervical vertebrae. The cervical column consists of nine joints and eight independent vertebrae. These vertebrae are round and not fused, making the neck more flexible and allowing it to bend backwards and sideways. The primary function and evolutionary implication of neck retraction is thought to be for feeding rather than protection. Neck retraction and extension allow the turtle to reach out further to capture prey while swimming. Neck extension creates suction when the head is thrust forward and the oropharynx is expanded. This morphology suggests the retraction function is for feeding purposes, as the suction helps catch prey.

Shell

Main article: Turtle shell

Skeleton of snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina)

The top, or dorsal portion of the shell is called the carapace and the bottom, or ventral part of the shell is the plastron. Bony structures called bridges connect the carapace and plastron together. The inside of the shell is composed of many bones including ribs and vertebrae, whereas the outside is composed of scutes. Scutes are a keratinized part of the epidermis and are similar in structure to scales of other reptiles.

The shell has many functions which include protection from predators, a home, fat and calcium storage, as well as a pH buffer. Each unique species may have a specific function or slightly different anatomy based on its lifestyle and environment.

Aquatic based turtles have a lighter shell than turtles that live primarily on land, tortoises, in order to float and swim faster. On the other hand, tortoises that live mainly on land have thick, heavy shells in order to prevent predators from eating or crushing them.

Respiration

Respiration for many amniotes, is achieved by the contraction and relaxation of specific muscle groups (i.e. intercostals, abdominal muscles, and/or a diaphragm) attached to an internal rib-cage that can expand or contract the body wall thus assisting airflow in and out of the lungs. The ribs of Testudines, however, are fused with their carapace and external to their pelvic and pectoral girdles, a feature unique among turtles. Their rigid shell is not capable of expansion, so Testudines have had to evolve special adaptations for respiration. Turtle pulmonary ventilation occurs by using specific groups of abdominal muscles attached to their viscera and shell that pull the lungs ventrally during inspiration, where air is drawn in via a negative pressure gradient (Boyle's Law). In expiration, the contraction of the transversus abdominis is the driving force by propelling the viscera into the lungs and expelling air under positive pressure. Conversely, the relaxing and flattening of the oblique abdominis muscle pulls the transversus back down, which again draws air back into the lungs. Important auxiliary muscles used for ventilatory processes are the pectoralis, which is used in conjunction with the transverse abdominis during inspiration, and the serratus, which moves with the abdominal oblique accompanying expiration.

The lungs of Testudines are multi-chambered and attach the entire length down the carapace. The number of chambers can vary between taxa, though most commonly they have three lateral chambers, three medial chambers, and one terminal chamber. As previously mentioned, the act of specific abdominal muscles pulling down the viscera (or pushing back up) is what allows for respiration in turtles. Specifically, it is the turtles large liver that pulls or pushes on the lungs. Ventral to the lungs, in the coelomic cavity, the liver of turtles is attached directly to the right lung, and their stomach is directly attached to the left lung by the ventral mesopneumonium, which is attached to their liver by the ventral mesentery. When the liver is pulled down, inspiration begins. Supporting the lungs is the post-pulmonary septum, which is found in all Testudines, and is thought to prevent the lungs from collapsing.

Skin and molting

Green Sea Turtle, skin versus shell scales

Turtles are covered in scales, however the scales on the shell differ from those on the rest of the body. The shell is made of scutes, but the rest of the body is covered in smaller keratinized scales. Molting in turtles does not occur like it does in snakes, all at once, but rather in flakes. Dead skin falls off in smaller sheets instead of molting as one large layer.

Limbs

The anatomy of the limbs and feet are a distinguishing factor between aquatic turtles and terrestrial tortoises. The differences are due to the distinct functions of the limbs, swimming in aquatic turtles and supports and walking for terrestrial turtles.

Olunia Palenga

Axolotl

-- My edits are in bold, and all include added citations missing from the original Wikipedia page. The original text is not bolded.

Introduction

Axolot's gills (Ambystoma mexicanum)

The last sentence of the Introduction paragraph needed to be updated and edited, including a citation:

Mexico City began a refuge project on conserving axolotls by building "axolotl shelters" to preserve the remaining and potential habitats, although this project was retired. (I cannot include the exact citation of this information because Wikipedia is claiming that this cite is on their "blacklist").

Description

Axolotls possess features typical of salamander larvae, including external gills and a caudal fin extending from behind the head to the vent. External gills are usually lost when when salamander species mature into adulthood, although the Axolotl maintains this feature.

Buccal pumping

The external gill rami are lined with filaments (fimbriae) to increase surface area for gas exchange. Four gill slits lined with gill rakers are hidden underneath the external gills, which prevent food from entering and allows particles to filter through.

Lake Xochimilco, Mexico City (Amanecer en Xochimilco). Native habitat of Axolotls, important to the study of preservation and conservation.

External gills are used for respiration, although buccal pumping (gulping air from the surface) may also be used to provide oxygen to their lungs. Buccal pumping can occur in a two-stroke manner that pumps air from the mouth to the lungs, and with four-stroke that reverses this pathway with compression forces.

Habitat and Ecology

The axolotl is only native to the fresh water of Lake Xochimilco and Lake Chalco in the Valley of Mexico.

The water temperature in Xochimilco rarely rises above 20 °C (68 °F), though it may fall between 6 and 7 °C in the winter, and perhaps lower.

Use as Model Organism

I have decided to include neoteny as a subheading section of use as model organism and suggest that it be arranged this way in the Axolotl page. I have included bolded text that is my edited contribution to the section, and the rearranged information regarding the neoteny experiments.

Neoteny

Main article: neoteny

Axolotls exhibit neoteny, meaning that they reach sexual maturity without undergoing metamorphosis. Many species within the axolotl's genus are either entirely neotenic or have neotenic populations. In the axolotl, metamorphic failure is caused by a lack of thyroid stimulating hormone, which is used to induce the thyroid to produce thyroxine in transforming salamanders. The genes responsible for neoteny in laboratory animals may have been identified; however, they are not linked in wild populations, suggesting artificial selection is the cause of complete neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls.

Six adult axolotls (including a leucistic specimen) were shipped from Mexico City to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1863. Unaware of their neoteny, Auguste Duméril was surprised when, instead of the axolotl, he found in the vivarium a new species, similar to the salamander.^{[French language verification needed]} This discovery was the starting point of research about neoteny. It is not certain that Ambystoma velasci specimens were not included in the original shipment.^{[citation needed]} Vilem Laufberger in Prague used thyroid hormone injections to induce an axolotl to grow into a terrestrial adult salamander. The experiment was repeated by Englishman Julian Huxley, who was unaware the experiment had already been done, using ground thyroids. Since then, experiments have been done often with injections of iodine or various thyroid hormones used to induce metamorphosis.

Checklist for Draft 2 (from peer reviews)

Abbie Loring

• Add photo caption
• Italicize genus species names!!
• Make it more clear what is being edited
  • Quotations were sections from the article, and then my edits were added below. I will make this more obvious in the next draft though.
• Add edits to the other sections
• Find book sources instead of websites

Kelly Brown

Peer review responses:

• Make a clear distinction between the original text and my edits
• Add a picture neck retraction mechanism and maybe the turtle skeleton
• Fix the grammatical errors that my peers found
• Check my citations and make sure they are peer reviewed
• Add more information about cryptodires in the introduction
• Link to dorsal page and get rid of explanation

Olunia Palenga

I have read through the commentary and peer reviews on my first draft and here is what I am planning to do:

• Fix the citation for the external gills (Dr. Schutz). I have no idea why it cited like this, I will need to go and find the source and re-cite.
• I will edit the citations so there are no repeats.
• I plan on adding to the introduction section, I just did not get a chance to do so yet.
• I was searching buccal pumping on Wikimedia but I was unsure of whether or not I should use the image (Thank you Dr. Schutz). I will add this to the section.
• I included the image of Lake Xochimilco because I wanted to contribute an image to this habitat section, and felt like the article would seem more rounded with it included. It doesn't necessarily stand out as something that is crucial, but I felt like it didn't hurt to add it.
• I will fix grammatical issues and typos.
• I plan to add more about Axolotl development in the use as model organism section.
• I received a comment regarding the Neoteny section and adding an image is on the list of things to do. I am confused on a comment about the section being "too detailed". I will go over and see if it needs to be simplified.
• Show the original text with your additions in a different color or highlighted in some way to show what you are removing or adding might help (go to the top and choose form Insert above and then template)

Week 6 Drafts:

Abbie Loring

Agalychnis callidryas

Description

This species has large, bright red eyes with vertically narrowed pupils. The red eyed tree frog is very colorful, with a vibrant green body, yellow and blue vertical stripes along its side, a white underside, and brightly colored orange or red feet. Additionally, they have sticky pads on their toes that allow them to cling onto leaves . The skin on the red-eyed treefrog's belly is soft and fragile, whereas the back is thicker and rougher. On average, the males are about two inches long, and the females are slightly bigger at around 3 inches.

I changed this portion to be more accurate, as they are not aquatic frogs and do not have webbed feet. I also added a source because there was not one attached to this section previously. Because there was no source, and because I could not determine if the zoo site was plagiarized, I also just changed the wording around to be safe.

Distribution and Habitat

"The optimum temperature for red-eyed treefrogs is 24–29 °C (75–84 °F) in the daytime, and 19–25 °C (66–77 °F) at night."

Agalychnis callidryas also require high humidity levels of at least 80%.

Behavior

"During the day, they remain motionless, cover their blue sides with their back legs, tuck their bright feet under their bellies, and shut their red eyes"

To this section, I want to add information about the Nictitating membrane that covers their eyes while they sleep.

New section proposal: During the day, they remain motionless, cover their blue sides with their back legs, tuck their bright feet under their bellies, and shut their red eyes. They do not have a true eyelid, but rather a Nictitating membrane that allows light to enter the eye so that they will awaken when predators are approaching.

"The large red eyes" not only aid in their ability to see at night, but also "serve as a defensive adaptation through deimatic behaviour."

Nictitating membrane

Reproduction

"The eggs develop into tadpoles, which hatch after six to seven days and fall into the water below."

My addition: Red eyed tree frog embryos use natural day and night light cycles as a signal for when to hatch, and tend to hatch just after nightfall.

"Red-eyed treefrog eggs [may] hatch early (exhibiting phenotypic plasticity) when a change in the environment signals a danger to their survival"

Anatomy and morphology

Turtle anatomy includes both an internal and external skeleton. The external skeleton is comprised of a bony shell, which serves as protection. The Internal skeleton makes up structures such as the flippers, and facilitates the anchoring of muscles. There are two main subgroups of turtles, Pleurodira and Cryptodires, which are mainly differentiated base on neck retraction. However, these two groups also show differences in the anatomy of the head.

Head

The size and shape of turtle's heads differ between the subgroups, Pleurodira and Cryptodires. It is noted that Pleurodira present a more flat and broadened skull. However, the same bony structure makes up both subgroup's skulls.

Turtles appear to have lost their teeth about 150–200 million years ago. So instead of having teeth, turtles use their rigid beak-like mouth, jaws, and horny ridges on their upper and lower jaws to tear and chew food. Turtles with a more carnivorous diet typically have knife-sharp ridges, whereas herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges. Their tongues are used to help swallow their food, however are not able to be outstretched.

As for the positioning of eyes on the head of turtles, the environment and lifestyle in which they live play a role. Turtles that spend most of their lives on land typically have eyes that allow the turtle to look down at what is in front of them. Aquatic turtle that submerge their entire body except the top of their head to look out for predators, like snapping turtles, have eyes towards the top of their head.

Neck retraction

Neck retraction

Pleurodires retract their neck sideways

Cryptodires retract their neck backwards

The mechanism of which a turtle retracts its neck differentiates it into one of the two subgroups, Pleurodira or Cryptodire. Pleurodira retracts laterally to the side, anterior to shoulder girdles, while the suborder Cryptodira retracts straight back, between shoulder girdles. These motions are largely due to the morphology and arrangement of cervical vertebrae. In recent turtles, the cervical column consists of nine joints and eight independent vertebrae. Since these vertebrae are not fused and are rounded, the neck is more flexible, bending in the backwards and sideways directions. The primary function and evolutionary implication of neck retraction is thought to be for feeding rather than protection. Neck retraction and reciprocal extension allow the turtle to reach out further to capture prey while swimming. Neck expansion creates suction when the head is thrust forward and the oropharynx is expanded. This morphology suggests the retraction function is for feeding purposes, as the suction helps catch prey. It has been hypothesized that neck retraction may have evolved for protective purposes when the head is back in the shell, however this is not the main function and rather an exaptation. Both Pleurodirans and Cryptodirans use the quick extension of the neck as a method of predation, so the difference in retraction mechanism is not due to a difference in ecological niche.

Cryptodire cervical vertebrae seen ventrally. The vertebrae have an S-shaped curve to allow for neck retraction into the shell.

Shell

Main article: Turtle shell

The top, or dorsal portion of the shell is called the carapace and the bottom, or ventral part of the shell is the plastron. Bony structures called bridges connect the carapace and plastron together. The shell inside differs from the outside. Inside the shell is composed of many bones including ribs and vertebras, whereas the outside is composed of scutes. Scutes are a part of the epidermis, are similar in structure to scales of other reptiles, and are made of keratin.

The shell has many functions which include protection from predators, a home, fat and calcium storage, as well as a pH buffer. Each unique species may have a specific function or slightly different anatomy based on its lifestyle and environment.

Aquatic based turtles have a lighter shell than turtles that live primarily on land, tortoises, in order to float and swim faster. On the other hand, tortoises that live mainly on land have thick, heavy shells in order to prevent predators from eating or crushing them.

Respiration

Respiration, for many amniotes, is achieved by the contraction and relaxation of specific muscle groups (i.e. intercostals, abdominal muscles, and/or a diaphragm) attached to an internal rib-cage that can expand or contract the body wall thus assisting airflow in and out of the lungs. The ribs of Testudines, however, are fused with their carapace and external to their pelvic and pectoral girdles, a feature unique among turtles. This rigid shell is not capable of expansion. With their immobile rib-cage, Testudines have had to evolve special adaptations for respiration. Turtle pulmonary ventilation occurs by using specific groups of abdominal muscles attached to their viscera and shell that pull the lungs ventrally during inspiration, where air is drawn in via a negative pressure gradient (Boyle's Law). In expiration, the contraction of the transversus abdominis is the driving force by propelling the viscera into the lungs and expelling air under positive pressure. Conversely, the relaxing and flattening of the oblique abdominis muscle pulls the transversus back down which, once again, draws air back into the lungs. Important auxiliary muscles used for ventilatory processes are the pectoralis, which is used in conjunction with the transverse abdominis during inspiration, and the serratus, which moves with the abdominal oblique accompanying expiration.

The lungs of Testudines are multi-chambered and attached their entire length down the carapace. The number of chambers can vary between taxa, though most commonly they have three lateral chambers, three medial chambers, and one terminal chamber. As previously mentioned, the act of specific abdominal muscles pulling down the viscera (or pushing back up) is what allows for respiration in turtles. Specifically, it is the turtles large liver that pulls or pushes on the lungs. Ventral to the lungs, in the coelomic cavity, the liver of turtles is attached directly to the right lung, and their stomach is directly attached to the left lung by the ventral mesopneumonium, which is attached to their liver by the ventral mesentery. When the liver is pulled down, inspiration begins. Supporting the lungs is the post-pulmonary septum, which is found in all Testudines, and is thought to prevent the lungs from collapsing.

Skin and molting

Skeleton of snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina)

Turtles are covered in scales, however the scales on the shell differ from those on the rest of the body. The shell is made of scutes, in which each individual scute corresponds to a modified scale. The rest of the body is covered in smaller scales, similar to other reptile's scales, which are made of keratin. Molting in turtles does not occur like it does in snakes, all at one, but rather in flakes. Dead skin falls off in sheets, rather than molting as one large layer.

Limbs

The anatomy of the limbs and feet are a distinguishing factor between aquatic turtles and terrestrial tortoises. The differences are due to the distinct functions of the limbs, swimming in aquatic turtles and supports and walking for terrestrial turtles.

Tortoises have two fewer phalanges on each of their feet, do not have webbed hind feet, their hind limbs are made of elephantine, and wrist mobility is less than that of aquatic turtles.

Aquatic turtles have flippers, in which they use their front ones to propel them through the water and hind flippers for steering.

Olunia Palenga

Description

Axolotls possess features typical of salamander larvae, including external gills and a caudal fin extending from behind the head to the vent.

- After this section I would like to add: "External gills are usually lost when when salamander species mature into adulthood, although the Axolotl maintains this feature."

The external gill rami are lined with filaments (fimbriae) to increase surface area for gas exchange. Four gill slits lined with gill rakers are hidden underneath the external gills.

Axolot's gills (Ambystoma mexicanum)

Lake Xochimilco (Amanecer en Xochimilco)

- Following this I would like to add: "which prevent food from entering and allows for particles to filter through."

External gills are used for respiration, although buccal pumping (gulping air from the surface) may also be used to provide oxygen to their lungs.

- I would like to elaborate on buccal pumping and include: "Buccal pumping can occur in a two-stroke manner that pumps air from the mouth to the lungs, and with four-stroke that reverses this pathway with compression forces."

Habitat and Ecology

The axolotl is only native to "the fresh water" Lake Xochimilco and Lake Chalco in the Valley of Mexico.

-I want to add that Axolotls are native to fresh water, shown in quotations.

The water temperature in Xochimilco rarely rises above 20 °C (68 °F), though it may fall between 6 and 7 °C in the winter, and perhaps lower.

Neoteny

I have found a source following the sentence:

-The genes responsible for neoteny in laboratory animals may have been identified; however, they are not linked in wild populations, suggesting artificial selection is the cause of complete neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls.

I think the second section of "use as model organism" should moved following this first paragraph in neoteny, since it relates to metamorphosis and artificial selection. I have also included a citation:

-Vilem Laufberger in Prague used thyroid hormone injections to induce an axolotl to grow into a terrestrial adult salamander. The experiment was repeated by Englishman Julian Huxley, who was unaware the experiment had already been done, using ground thyroids. Since then, experiments have been done often with injections of iodine or various thyroid hormones used to induce metamorphosis.

Use as a model organism

The paragraph mentioned above has been moved to the neoteny section. I would like to include here more information in the third paragraph section regarding the development of Axolotls and how that makes them ideal model organisms:

-

Outlines:

Abbie Loring

Agalychnis callidryas

Behavior

"During the day, they remain motionless, cover their blue sides with their back legs, tuck their bright feet under their bellies, and shut their red eyes"

To this section, I want to add information about the Nictitating membrane that covers their eyes while they sleep.

Red Eyed Tree Frog Nictitating Membrane

New section proposal: During the day, they remain motionless, cover their blue sides with their back legs, tuck their bright feet under their bellies, and shut their red eyes. They do not have a true eyelid, but rather a Nictitating membrane that allows light to enter the eye so that they will awaken when predators are approaching.

Reproduction

"The eggs develop into tadpoles, which hatch after six to seven days and fall into the water below."

My addition: Red eyed tree frog embryos use natural day and night light cycles as a signal for when to hatch, and tend to hatch just after nightfall.

"Red-eyed treefrog eggs [may] hatch early (exhibiting phenotypic plasticity) when a change in the environment signals a danger to their survival"

I added these updates to the article's talk page, and am waiting for a reply before I edit the article.

Kelly Brown

My article: Turtle

1. Edits to be made:

General edits:

add citations, anatomy section- begin with basic anatomy of most (or all turtles) instead of talking about size of one specific species, ecology section designated to mainly relationship with ecosystem and other animals, elaborate on reproduction, temperature dependent differentiation, add an extant and extinct section

Specific:

Senses section: "At least some turtles species can see color and different species prefer different colours. Indeed, the males of some species such as the painted terrapin change colour during breeding season which is thought to help individuals find a suitable mate.^{[better source needed]"}

• To edit this I would leave out the part about males changing color for breeding. This information belongs better in the mating and reproduction section
• This senses section should be redone in order to encompass all the senses and not include information that doesn't belong in this section like the information on color and mating.
• The information about pursuit movement needs to be better introduced and elaborate how that contributes to moving head quickly.

Intelligence section: "Case studies exist of turtles playing.^{[better source needed]"}

• This sentence does not add to the section or provide the reader with helpful information, so I suggest that it be removed

Anatomy and morphology section:

• Instead of having paragraphs about sizes of different species; I suggest an opening paragraph like the one below.
• Turtle anatomy is comprised of both an internal and external skeleton. The external skeleton is comprised of a bony shell, which serves as protection. The Internal skeleton makes up structures such as the flippers, and facilitates the anchoring of muscles.

2. Articles:

Wikipedia: retiles, amniotes,

Sources:

• https://turtletime.org/sea-turtles/anatomy/
• https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=9H_LBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA79&dq=turtles+vision&ots=meVCJPdxJg&sig=Z8pVDi9wYnOFvKHqlDdT2yXFrf0#v=onepage&q&f=false
• https://www.constantinealexander.net/2014/week33/
• http://nsmn1.uh.edu/frankino/assets/docs/galapago/reading/kricher/kricher_tortoise.pdf
• https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/92/2/206/2187276
• https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Claudio-Campagna-2/publication/258158765_A_jellyfish_diet_for_the_herbivorous_green_turtle_Chelonia_mydas_in_the_temperate_SW_Atlantic/links/5746ed8108aea45ee858262c/A-jellyfish-diet-for-the-herbivorous-green-turtle-Chelonia-mydas-in-the-temperate-SW-Atlantic.pdf

3. Images/media:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

Olunia Palenga

Article: Axolotl

Sources and edits needed:

• Needed citation in the description section for gas exchange in the gills. I think these sources would cover the citation needed.
  • External gills - Wikipedia.
  • I requested this edit in the article's talk page (bottom two sources).

• This source discusses development in the Mexican Axolotl.
  • https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/18.2.195

• Habitat and Ecology section needs citation to first paragraph on lake temperatures from where Axolotl's are native to.
  • This section also needs a citation for Mexican tiger salamanders
  • "Lake Xochimilco, Borough of Xochimilco in southern México City, 162 L • Biotope Aquarium". Biotope Aquarium. Retrieved 2021-03-16.

• Amphibian - Wikipedia

• There is a citation needed in the Habitat and Ecology section regarding terrestrial Mexican tiger salamanders living in the Axolotl habitat.
  • Tiger salamander - Wikipedia.

• There is a citation needed to reference respiration and buccal pumping (can't seem to find a source quite yet).
• Neoteny section is lacking a citation for artificial selection..."suggesting artificial selection is the cause of complete neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls.^{[citation needed]"}
  • I believe that this section is lacking information and this source may contribute some more information about neoteny and artificial selection in the laboratory.
    • https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2003-0913

Article: Shark anatomy

1. Sources:
   • Fish anatomy
   • Shark
   • Evolution of fish
   • Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Statistical Services (2016-12-19). "Shark anatomy". www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca. Retrieved 2021-03-05.
     • A citation is needed in the Respiratory System section, in the last sentence of the first paragraph. Bottom-dwelling sharks such as the Angel shark use spiracles to take in water for breathing. Rays use spiracles to pump water over the gills for oxygen.
     • I requested this edit in the article's talk page
   • Skeleton section: This is lacking some information, particularly where it says "They belong to the class of Chondrichthyes." I think this is a great place to add some evolutionary history and comparisons of Shark species.
     • Chondrichthyes - Wikipedia
     • https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12826

Article: Cat anatomy

1. Edits to be made:
2. Sources:
3. Images/media:

Feedback: Discussion and Adding to an Article

• This sandbox is VERY well organized and I think you have all put yourselves in a very good spot to produce your first draft.
• A few reminders: 1. Start actually citing in your pages and making live links. A few of you are doing this in your sections, but a few are not and the practice is critical.

2. If you have done this, address citation issues that pop up. These will also pop up in your moves to actual pages and knowing how to deal with them is critical to not having your work get automatically deleted. 3. Remember to use those talk pages to your advantage. Post your ideas there and see what other editors say. There is a chance that no one will respond, but you can also get very helpful feedback and suggestions. These are better early rather than after you have posted something permanent.

REMINDER: Please make sure to draft YOUR parts in your sandbox first and THEN copy them to the group sandbox. This step is absolutely critical as it ensures that your specific work is identifiable and prevents loss due to multi-editor activity. Additionally, when you are trying out formatting elements, it prevents you from altering the whole page as you try things out. I am requiring you to do this. If you have a philosophical issue with it, please talk to me, but do not disregard it.

• Well done!Osquaesitor (talk) 15:47, 23 March 2021 (UTC)