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Draft:Political representation of nature

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Snæfellsjökull, a glacier in the Snæfellsnes peninsula in Iceland, was a nominee to run in the 2024 Icelandic presidential elections.[1]
The Whanganui River, and its tributaries were established as a legal entity with its own standing in 2012.[2]

Political representation of nature refers to the concept and practice of granting political, or institutional standing to nonhuman entities—such as animals, plants, and ecosystems—within governance systems.[3] This concept has developed to incorporate natural entities in political decision-making, reflecting debates about human-centered governance's effectiveness in environmental protection.[4][5]

The debate in this field is driven by emerging trends, including the political turn in environmental ethics and the representative turn in political theory. Following progress in legal representation for nonhuman nature, such as the granting of legal personhood to animals,[6] rivers[2] and ecosystems,[7] the conversation has broadened to consider how nature can be represented within legislative and executive branches of government.[8]

Historical and Theoretical Background

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Historically, early thinkers, including Thomas Hobbes, framed nature as passive and separate from human society. Later, theorists such as Bruno Latour introduced concepts, such as a 'parliament of things,' proposing that democratic processes consider nonhuman actors. Latour’s approach has been cited as influential in political theories addressing ecological issues, emphasizing the interconnectedness of human and environmental systems.[9]

Since the early 2000s, frameworks such as Earth Jurisprudence and Rights of Nature have further influenced the concept of nonhuman representation. These frameworks propose that nature has intrinsic value deserving of rights both legally and morally.[10] The works of political theorists like Andrew Dobson,[11] Robyn Eckersley,[12] Robert Goodin,[13] and John O'Neill[14] have contributed to this shift. They propose that humans have an ethical responsibility toward nature, suggesting that democratic systems might evolve to account for nonhuman interests.

Institutional Mechanisms

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Various institutional mechanisms have been proposed and put into practice to incorporate nonhuman entities and ecosystems into formal political decision-making processes.

Electoral reforms like proportional representation and lowering electoral thresholds have been suggested to facilitate the entry of green parties into parliaments. These changes could help increase the political influence of parties dedicated to environmental advocacy, further amplifying the representation of nature in governance​.[8][15]

Deliberative initiatives, such as citizen assemblies and deliberative mini-publics, engage randomly selected citizens in structured discussions on environmental issues, providing a platform for nonhuman interests to be included in political discourse. While these bodies typically do not have formal decision-making power, they can influence policy indirectly by informing legislators.[8][16]

Dedicated ombudspersons or commissioners are independent offices that investigate and advocate for the rights of natural entities, operating similarly to human rights commissioners.[8][17]

The allocation of seats in existing parliaments to specific representatives of nature mirrors systems of political reservations used to ensure representation for marginalised human groups. These nature representatives would advocate for the interests of ecosystems and nonhuman entities within legislative bodies.[8][18]

On a global level, the establishment of new supranational institutions has been proposed. Suggested frameworks include regional ecosystem assemblies for different biomes and an Earth System Council to coordinate global environmental action. Both institutions aim to include representation from states, indigenous communities, and proxy guardians for the non-human.[3][19]

Political Representation of Nature in Practice

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Examples of nonhuman representation exist in several countries.[20]

In New Zealand, the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment is responsible for monitoring environmental issues. This office conducts investigations, reviews, and reports on environmental conditions and evaluates the effectiveness of government policies. Its role is intended to support transparency and accountability in environmental governance.[21][22]

The European Commissioner for Health and Animal Welfare is responsible for updating animal welfare regulations within the European Union. The position also promotes the One Health approach, which recognizes the interdependence of people, animals, plants, and their shared environment.[23][24]

In Wales, the Future Generations Commissioner ensures that the interests of future generations are considered in policy-making. The office evaluates the long-term impacts of current policies and promotes sustainable development practices aimed at safeguarding both human and environmental health.[25][26]

In Germany, the Federal Animal Welfare Officer provides oversight on animal welfare matters and advises the federal government across sectors such as agriculture, research, and industry.[27][28]

Australia’s Inspector-General of Animal Welfare and Live Animal Exports advises the federal government on issues related to animal welfare and oversees the development of policies to improve the treatment and protection of animals.[29][30]

In Spain, the General Director of Animal Rights manages animal welfare policies at the federal level, developing strategies to enhance animal rights and incorporating these into broader social and legislative frameworks.[31][32]

The Commissioner for Animal Welfare in Malta enforces animal welfare laws and oversees the proper treatment of animals, ensuring compliance with national regulations.[33][34]

In New York City, the Office of Animal Welfare focuses on policies related to the health, safety, and welfare of wild animals and pets.[35][36]

References

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  1. ^ Kassam, Ashifa (2024-04-19). "Bid to secure spot for glacier in Icelandic presidential race heats up". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  2. ^ a b "Saving the Whanganui: can personhood rescue a river?". The Guardian. 2019-11-29. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  3. ^ a b Burke, Anthony; Fishel, Stefanie (2020), Pereira, Joana Castro; Saramago, André (eds.), "Across Species and Borders: Political Representation, Ecological Democracy and the Non-Human", Non-Human Nature in World Politics: Theory and Practice, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 33–52, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49496-4_3, ISBN 978-3-030-49496-4, retrieved 2024-09-18
  4. ^ Pereira, Joana Castro; Saramago, André (2020), Pereira, Joana Castro; Saramago, André (eds.), "Introduction: Embracing Non-Human Nature in World Politics", Non-Human Nature in World Politics: Theory and Practice, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–9, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49496-4_1, ISBN 978-3-030-49496-4, retrieved 2024-09-18
  5. ^ Watts, Jonathan (2024-01-01). "Could 2024 be the year nature rights enter the political mainstream?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  6. ^ "Orangutan Sandra granted personhood settles into new Florida home". The Guardian. 2019-11-07. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  7. ^ Jones, Sam (2022-09-21). "Endangered Mar Menor lagoon in Spain granted legal status as a person". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  8. ^ a b c d e Magaña, Pablo (2022-10-07). "The Political Representation of Nonhuman Animals". Social Theory and Practice. 48 (4): 665–690. doi:10.5840/soctheorpract2022811171.
  9. ^ Brown, Mark B. (2018-02-15). "Speaking for Nature: Hobbes, Latour, and the Democratic Representation of Nonhumans". Science & Technology Studies. 31 (1): 31–51. doi:10.23987/sts.60525. ISSN 2243-4690.
  10. ^ Crews, Chris (2023), Jay Kassiola, Joel; Luke, Timothy W. (eds.), "Environmental Justice and the Global Rights of Nature Movement", The Palgrave Handbook of Environmental Politics and Theory, Environmental Politics and Theory, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 467–501, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-14346-5_20, ISBN 978-3-031-14346-5, retrieved 2024-09-18
  11. ^ Dobson A (1996) Representative Democracy and the Environment. In: Lafferty W M and Meadowcroft J (eds) Democracy and the Environment: Problems and Prospects. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 124-139.
  12. ^ Eckersley, R. (2000). Deliberative Democracy, Ecological Representation and Risk: Towards a Democracy of the Affected. In Democratic Innovations: Deliberation, Association and Representation (pp. 117 - 145). Routledge.
  13. ^ Goodin RE (1996) Enfranchising the Earth, and its Alternatives. Political Studies 44 (5): 835-849
  14. ^ O’Neill J (2001) Representing People, Representing Nature, Representing the World. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 19(4): 483-500.
  15. ^ Lijphart, Arend, and Bernard Grofman, eds. 1984. Choosing an Electoral System. New York: Praeger.
  16. ^ Curato, N., Chalaye, P., Conway-Lamb, W., De Pryck, K., Elstub, S., Morán, A., Oppold, D., Romero, J., Ross, M., Sanchez, E., Sari, N., Stasiak, D., Tilikete, S., Veloso, L., von Schneidemesser, D., & Werner, H. (2023). Global Assembly on the Climate and Ecological Crisis Evaluation Report. University of Canberra.
  17. ^ Hooley, Daniel. 2018. “The Political Status of Nonhuman Animals.” PhD thesis, University of Toronto.
  18. ^ Cochrane, Alasdair (2018-10-18). "Securing Sentientist Politics". Oxford Scholarship Online. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198789802.003.0007.
  19. ^ "Animals Could Play a Pivotal Role in Climate Talks—if We Let Them". 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  20. ^ Lawrence, Peter (November 2022). "Justifying Representation of Future Generations and Nature: Contradictory or Mutually Supporting Values?". Transnational Environmental Law. 11 (3): 553–579. doi:10.1017/S2047102522000176. ISSN 2047-1025.
  21. ^ "Functions and powers". Parliamentary Commissioner of Environment. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  22. ^ Diaz-Rainey, Ivan (2019-03-28). "NZ's environmental watchdog challenges climate policy on farm emissions and forestry offsets". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  23. ^ "Mission Letter" (PDF). Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  24. ^ "Err … him?! EU's new animal welfare chief yet to win hearts and minds". POLITICO. 2024-09-17. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  25. ^ "Future Generations Commissioner for Wales – The Future Generations Commissioner for Wales". www.futuregenerations.wales. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  26. ^ "What does 'longtermism' mean to you?". Independent.co.uk. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  27. ^ "Good news for Germany's chickens – DW – 06/16/2023". dw.com. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  28. ^ "Tierschutzbeauftragte der Bundesregierung". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  29. ^ "Inspector-General of Animal Welfare and Live Animal Exports". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  30. ^ Jackson, Elizabeth (Liz) (2023-07-05). "Why Australia banning live sheep exports may be a net loss for animal welfare". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  31. ^ "Director General de Derechos de los Animales". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  32. ^ "Spain rolled out a new animal welfare law. It has many contradictions". euronews. 2023-10-03. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  33. ^ "OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONER FOR ANIMAL WELFARE". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  34. ^ "Animal welfare reform facing 'agonising' delays, Commissioner complains". Times of Malta. 2024-04-16. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  35. ^ "Animal Welfare". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  36. ^ "Too Many Cats, Too Few Vets: New York City Animal Shelters Are Bursting". The New York Times. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
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