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Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples

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Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples
They Came for the Children
a publication by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
LocationCanada
TargetIndigenous peoples in Canada
Attack type
Genocide, ethnic cleansing, forced displacement, collective punishment, sexual abuse, starvation, forced conversion
AssailantsGovernment of Canada, Catholic Church, Anglican Church, United Church, and Presbyterian Church
Motive

The Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples[nb 1] is the genocide and systematic destruction of the Indigenous inhabitants of Canada from colonization to the present day.[7] Throughout the history of Canada, the Canadian government and its colonial predecessors has committed what has variously been described as atrocities, crimes, ethnocide, and genocide, against the Indigenous peoples in Canada.[8][9]

Canada is a settler-colonial state "whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and the exploitation of their land base", and therefore various concepts were used as justifications for the genocide since the very beginnings of the federation and its predecessor states.[7][10][11] The Canadian government implemented policies such as the Indian Act,[nb 2] residential schools, health-care segregation, and displacement that aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream society while erasing their religious and culture identities.[13]

There is debate among scholars and Indigenous people about the exact definition and type of genocide that has occurred.[14][15][16] Canadian Courts and recent governments have recognized and eliminated many discriminatory practices. A period of redress began with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[17] This included recognition of cultural genocide,[18] settlement agreements,[17] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.[19] Despite the official and academic recognition, segments of the Canadian population deny a cultural genocide took place.[20]

Settler colonialism

[edit]
Main article: Settler colonialism in Canada
Illustration of fur traders trading with an Indigenous person
Fur traders, in what is now Canada, trading with an Indigenous person in 1777

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[21] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[22] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to dispossession of lands through treaties and displacement legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act,[23] the Indian Act, [24] the Potlatch ban,[25] and the pass system,[26] that focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.[27]

Indigenous groups continued to suffer from severe racially motivated discrimination from their new colonial societies.[28] More recent understandings of the concept of "cultural genocide" and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal aspects of the Canadian states' role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people.[29][30][31] This is further expanded by employing Patrick Wolfe's analysis of settler-colonialism, as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, creating a "structural genocide" of the Indigenous people of Canada.[32]

Significant historical incidences

[edit]
Further information: Indigenous peoples in Canada § Forced assimilation
Indigenous children working at long desks
Study period at a Roman Catholic Indian Residential School in Fort Resolution, NWT

The impact of colonization on Canada can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures.[33] This led to the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families, the suppression of Indigenous languages and traditions, and the degradation of Indigenous communities. Other actions which have been highlighted as indicative of genocide include sporadic massacres, the spread of disease, the prohibition of cultural practices, and the ecological devastation of indigenous territories.[34] It can be argued that Colonialism and its effects are still ongoing when looking at current events.[33][35]

As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population massively declined.[36][37][38] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases,[38][39][40][41] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency,[42][43] Roland G. Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France.[44]

The most well documented incident of genocide against Indigenous Canadians is the Indian Residential School System.[45] Another examples include the forced relocation of Inuit populations during the cold war to propagate Canadian sovereignty,[46] medical segregation that led to poor conditions and lack of innovations being implemented,[47] the sterilization of Indigenous men and women,[48] and the modern day plight of violence and discrimination faced by Indigenous females being marginalized.[49]

The Beothuk

[edit]
Main article: Beothuk § Genocide
The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct as a cultural group. It is represented in museum, historical and archaeological records.

With the death of Shanawdithit in 1829,[50] the Beothuk people, and the Indigenous people of Newfoundland were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics, starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders.[51] The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their forced displacement deprived them of two of these. This led to the over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle, attempting to avoid contact with Europeans,[52] into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation.[53][54]

Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk.[15] While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out as an unintended consequence of European colonization, others argue that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.[55][56]

Such a campaign was explicitly without official sanction after 1759, any such action thereafter being in violation of Governor John Byron's proclamation that "I do strictly enjoin and require all His Majesty's subjects to live in amity and brotherly kindness with the native savages [Beothuk] of the said island of Newfoundland",[57] as well as the subsequent Proclamation issued by Governor John Holloway on July 30, 1807, which prohibited mistreatment of the Beothuk and offered a reward for any information on such mistreatment.[58] Such proclamations seemed to have little effect, as writing in 1766, Governor Hugh Palliser reported to the British secretary of state that "the barbarous system of killing prevails amongst our people towards the Native Indians — whom our People always kill, when they can meet them".[50]

Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemics

[edit]
Main article: 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic

Pacific Northwest indigenous peoples experienced several earlier smallpox epidemics, about once per generation after European contact began in the late 18th century: in the late 1770s, 1801–03, 1836–38, and 1853. These epidemics are not as well documented in historical records as the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic.[59]

The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic started in Victoria on Vancouver Island and spread among the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and into the indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau, killing a large portion of natives from the Puget Sound region to Southeast Alaska. Two-thirds of British Columbia natives died—around 20,000 people.[60]

While colonial authorities used quarantine, smallpox vaccine, and inoculation to keep the disease from spreading among colonists and settlers, it was largely allowed to spread among indigenous peoples. The Colony of Vancouver Island made attempts to save some natives, but most were forced to leave the vicinity of Victoria and go back to their homelands, despite awareness that it would result in a major smallpox epidemic among natives along the Pacific Northwest coast. Many colonists and newspapers were vocally in favor of expulsion.[61]

Some historians have described it as a deliberate genocide because the Colony of Vancouver Island and the Colony of British Columbia could have prevented the epidemic but chose not to, and in some ways facilitated it.[62][63] According to historian Kiran van Rijn, "opportunistic self-interest, coupled with hollow pity, revulsion at the victims, and smug feelings of inevitability, shaped the colonial response to the epidemic among First Nations"; and that for some residents of Victoria the eviction of native people was a "long-sought opportunity" to be rid of them; and, for some, an opportunity to take over First Nation lands. At the time, and still today, some natives say that the colonial government deliberately spread smallpox for the purpose of stealing their land.[64][65]

Residential schools

[edit]
Main articles: Canadian Indian residential school system and Sixties Scoop

Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996,[66] the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches,[67] ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes.[68][69] Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.[70][71] While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, abuse, and sexual abuse.[72][73] The negative effects of the residential school system have long been accepted almost unanimously among scholars researching the residential school system, with debate focussing on the motives and intent.[74]

Mohawk Institute Residential School

Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the Sixties Scoop, was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote: "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child. There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that."[75][9] Another aspect of the residential school system was its use of forced sterilization on Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous men.[76][77][78]

Indigenous people of Canada have long referred to the residential school system as genocide,[79][80][81] with scholars referring to the system as genocidal since the 1990s.[82] According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a Eurocentric society, violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952.[83][84] Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in international court for genocide.[85][86] Others also point to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which was adopted into Canadian law in 2010, where article 7 discusses the rights of indigenous people to not be subjected to genocide or "any other act of violence, including forcibly removing children of the group to another group".[87]

A legal case resulted in settlement of CA$2 billion in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples.[88] The executive summary of the TRC concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide.[89][90] This conclusion has been supported by other scholars, including David Bruce MacDonald and Graham Hudson, who also comment that the residential school system may also amount to more than just cultural genocide,[91] laying out specific arguments as to how the residential school system met the dolus specialis requirement of the Genocide Convention.[92] The ambiguity of the phrasing in the TRC report allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The TRC was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a legal responsibility of the Canadian government that would be difficult to prove. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.[93][94]

Nutrition experiments

[edit]
Main article: First Nations nutrition experiments

The First Nations nutrition experiments were a series of experiments run in Canada by Department of Pensions and National Health (now Health Canada) in the 1940s and 1950s. The experiments were conducted on at least 1,300 Indigenous people across Canada, approximately 1,000 of whom were children.[95] The deaths connected with the experiments have been described as part of Canada's genocide of Indigenous peoples.[96]

The experiments involved nutrient-poor isolated communities such as those in The Pas and Norway House in northern Manitoba and residential schools[97] and were designed to learn about the relative importance and optimum levels of newly discovered vitamins and nutritional supplements.[98][99][100] The experiments included deliberate, sustained malnourishment and in some cases, the withholding of dental services.[101]

The Government of Canada was aware of malnourishment in its residential schools and granted approval for the execution of nutritional experiments on children.[101] It is now known that the primary cause of malnutrition in residential schools was underfunding from the Canadian government.[95] The nutritional experiments residential school children were subjected to neither provided evidence of completion nor contributed to the body of knowledge around nutrition and supplementation.[95]

Nutritional experiments conducted on Indigenous children in residential schools came to public light in 2013 through the research of food historian Dr. Ian Mosby.[95]

Sterilizations

[edit]
Main article: Compulsory sterilization in Canada

Compulsory sterilization in Canada has a documented history in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia.[102] In June 2021, the Standing Committee on Human Rights in Canada found that compulsory sterilization is ongoing in Canada and its extent has been underestimated.[103]

In Alberta the Legislative Assembly passed the Sexual Sterilization Act in 1928 to promote eugenics.[104] With the arrival of the Great Depression in 1929 sterilization efforts increased, especially against Indigenous people and immigrants, due to fears of jobs being stolen by immigrants and living lives of poverty.[105] Indigenous women made up only 2.5% of the Canadian population, but 25% of those who were sterilized under the Canadian eugenics laws – many without their knowledge or consent.[76][77][78] In comparison to the "2834 individuals sterilized under Alberta's eugenic policy, historian Angus McLaren has estimated that in British Columbia no more than a few hundred individuals were sterilized".[106] [107] The disparity between the numbers sterilized in the two provinces can be attributed in part to the tighter provisions of British Columbia's Sexual Sterilization Act.[107] Whereas the Alberta legislation was amended twice to increase the program's scope and efficiency, British Columbia's sterilization program remained unchanged.[108][109]

Displacement

[edit]
Main article: High Arctic relocation
Relocation from Inukjuak to Resolute (left arrow) and Grise Fiord (right arrow)

The High Arctic relocation happened in the context of the Cold War, the federal government forcibly relocated 87 Inuit citizens to the High Arctic as human symbols of Canada's assertion of ownership of the region. The Inuit were told that they would be returned home to Northern Quebec after two years if they wished, but this offer was later withdrawn as it would damage Canada's claims to the High Arctic; they were forced to stay.[110][111][112] In 1993, after extensive hearings, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation.[113] The government paid compensation and in 2010 issued a formal apology.[114]

Medical segregation

[edit]
Main article: Indian hospitals
The Coqualeetza Indian Hospital which was located in Sardis, British Columbia,

The Indian hospitals were racially segregated hospitals, originally serving as tuberculosis sanatoria but later operating as general hospitals for Indigenous peoples in Canada which operated during the 20th century.[115][116] The hospitals were originally used to isolate Indigenous tuberculosis patients from the general population because of a fear among health officials that "Indian TB" posed a danger to the non-indigenous population.[117][118] Many of these hospitals were located on Indian reserves, and might also be called reserve hospitals, while others were in nearby towns. Low salaries, poor working conditions, and the isolated locations of many hospitals made it difficult to maintain adequate numbers of qualified staff.[119] These hospitals also did not receive the same level of funding as facilities for non-Indigenous communities. Although treatment for tuberculosis in non-Indigenous patients improved during the 1940s and 1950s, these innovations were not propagated to the Indian hospitals.[117] From 1949 to 1953, 374 experimental surgeries were performed on TB patients, without the use of general anesthetic at the Charles Camsell Indian Hospital.[120]

Missing and murdered Indigenous females

[edit]
Main article: Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women

From 2016 to 2019, the Canadian government conducted the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women. The final report of the inquiry concluded that the high level of violence directed at First Nations, Inuit, and Metis women and girls is "caused by state actions and inactions rooted in colonialism and colonial ideologies."[121] The National Inquiry commissioners said in the report and publicly that the MMIWG crisis is "a Canadian genocide."[122] It also concluded that the crisis constituted an ongoing "race, identity and gender-based genocide."[123][124][125]

External videos
video icon B.C.‘s infamous Highway of Tears, CBC Archives, 2:32, 21 June 2006, reported by Miyoung Lee

The MMIWG inquiry used a broader definition of genocide from the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act which encompasses "not only acts of commission, but 'omission' as well."[123] The inquiry described the traditional legal definition of genocide as "narrow" and based on the Holocaust. According to the inquiry, "colonial genocide does not conform with popular notions of genocide as a determinate, quantifiable event" and concluded that "these [genocidal] policies fluctuated in time and space, and in different incarnations, are still ongoing."[126]

On June 3, 2019, Luis Almagro, secretary-general of Organization of American States (OAS), asked Foreign Affairs Minister Chrystia Freeland to support the creation of an independent probe into the MMIWG allegation of Canadian 'genocide' since Canada had previously supported "probes of atrocities in other countries" such as Nicaragua in 2018.[127] On June 4, in Vancouver, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said that, "Earlier this morning, the national inquiry formally presented their final report, in which they found that the tragic violence that Indigenous women and girls have experienced amounts to genocide."[123]

Reconciliation

[edit]
Main article: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada

Indigenous reconciliation in Canada is a complex and ongoing process that seeks to address the historical injustices and inequalities experienced by Indigenous peoples. This includes acknowledging the harmful effects of colonization, the Indian Residential School system, and the displacement of Indigenous communities from their lands.[128] Reconciliation also aims to promote healing, understanding, and respect between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in order to build a more equitable and inclusive society.[128]

A period of redress began in 2008 with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada,[17] and an apology by then Prime Minister Stephen Harper on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system.[129] In 2015, Supreme Court Chief Justice Beverly McLachlin said that Canada's historical treatment of Indigenous peoples was "cultural genocide".[130] In October 2022, the Canadian House of Commons unanimously passed a motion calling on the federal Canadian government to recognize the residential school system as genocide.[131][132] This acknowledgment was followed by a visit by Pope Francis who apologized for Church members' role in what he labeled the "oppression, mistreatment and cultural genocide of indigenous people".[133][134][135] Scouts Canada also issued an apology for "its role in the eradication of First Nation, Inuit and Metis people for more than a century".[136]

The National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, which opened at the University of Manitoba in November 2015, is an archival repository home to the research, documents, and testimony collected during the course of the TRC's operation.[137]

Denialism

[edit]
Main article: Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples § Canada

Despite overwhelming evidence and countless testimonies from survivors, some individuals and institutions refuse to acknowledge the systemic violence and destruction which Indigenous communities were subjected to.[138][139][140] The denial and disbelief dominated the original reactions of the mainstream media in Canada and of many non-Indigenous people in Canada that amounted to: "A genocide in Canada? Surely not!".[141][142]

Canada has received many criticisms regarding its denial of participation in Indigenous genocide, particularly in relation to the Indian residential school system, and the long-term effects of both residential schooling and colonization more generally.[143] In 2022, Gregory Stanton, former president of International Association of Genocide Scholars, issued a report of Canada's genocide saying it is in denial.[144] On National Truth and Reconciliation Day in 2023, Trudeau said that denialism was on the rise.[145]

The Canadian Museum for Human Rights (CMHR) received criticism upon its opening in 2014 because it did not use the term genocide to describe the history of colonialism in Canada.[146] In 2019, the museum reversed its policy and officially recognizes genocide of Indigenous peoples in Canada in its content.[147]

In 2021, Senator Lynn Beyak generated controversy and was accused of genocide denial in the Canadian Indian residential school system after she voiced disapproval of the final Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada report, saying that it had omitted the positives of the schools.[148][149][150] Similarly, former Conservative Party leader Erin O'Toole said that the residential school system educated Indigenous children,[151] but then changed his view:[152] Former newspaper publisher Conrad Black and others have also been accused of denial.[153][154][155]

See also

[edit]
Main articles: Index of racism-related articles and Outline of genocide studies

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The word Indigenous is capitalized when used in a Canadian context.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
  2. ^ The term Indian has been used in keeping with page name guidelines because of the historical nature of the page and the precision of the name.[12] The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era in which the system was established, specifically one in which Indigenous peoples in Canada were homogeneously referred to as Indians rather than by language that distinguishes First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples.[12] Use of Indian is limited throughout the page to proper nouns and references to government legislation.

References

[edit]
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  2. ^ "4.11 Races, languages and peoples, 4.12". TERMIUM Plus. October 8, 2009. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved July 16, 2024.
  3. ^ "Indigenous Peoples". University of Guelph. November 14, 2019. Archived from the original on July 24, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2024.
  4. ^ "14.12 Elimination of Racial and Ethnic Stereotyping, Identification of Groups". Translation Bureau. Public Works and Government Services Canada. 2017. Archived from the original on April 3, 2024. Retrieved July 2, 2020.
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  6. ^ Todorova, Miglena (2016). "Co-Created Learning: Decolonizing Journalism Education in Canada". Canadian Journal of Communication. 41 (4): 673–92. doi:10.22230/cjc.2016v41n4a2970.
  7. ^ a b Richardson, Benjamin (2020). Richardson, Benjamin J. (ed.). From student strikes to the extinction rebellion: new protest movements shaping our future. Cheltenham, UK Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-80088-109-9. Canada is a settler colonial state, whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and exploitation of their land base' (2015:44). Many of the most egregious genocidal...
  8. ^ Woolford 2009, p. 81; Green 2023; MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 430–431; Dhamoon 2016, p. 10
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  10. ^ Williams, Kimberly (2021). Stampede: Misogyny, White Supremacy and Settler Colonialism. Fernwood Publishing. ISBN 9781773632179. Canada is a settler colonial state, it is also what hooks (Jhally 1997) calls a white supremacist capitalist heteropatriarchy...
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  31. ^ MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 429–431.
  32. ^ Dhamoon 2016, pp. 6–7.
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  47. ^ Lux 2016, p. 3.
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Works cited

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Further reading

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See also: Bibliography of Canadian history § Indigenous
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