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[edit]A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former) Library of Congress Call Number DK17 .S6396 1991
* Soviet Union (Former)
* Foreword
* Acknowledgements
* Preface
* Table A. Chronology of Important Events
* Country Profile
o Country
o Geography
o Society
o Politics and Government
o Economy
o Science and Technology
o Transportation and Communications
o National Security
* Introduction
* Chapter 1 - Historical Setting: Early History to 1917 (Zenon E. Kohut and David M. Goldfrank)
o Emergence of the East Slavs
+ The Peoples of the East European Plain
+ The East Slavs and the Varangians
+ The Golden Age of Kiev
+ The Rise of Regional Centers
+ The Mongol Invasion
o Muscovy
+ The Rise of Muscovy
+ The Evolution of Russian Autocracy
+ Ivan IV
+ The Time of Troubles
+ The Romanovs
+ Expansion and Westernization
o Early Imperial Russia
+ Peter the Great and the Formation of the Russian Empire
+ Era of Palace Revolutions
+ Imperial Expansion and Maturation: Catherine II
o Ruling the Empire
+ War and Peace, 1796-1825
+ Period of Reaction: Nicholas I, 1825-55
o The Transformation of Imperial Russia
+ Economic Developments
+ Reforms and Their Limits, 1855-92
+ Foreign Affairs after the Crimean War, 1856-93
+ The Age of Realism in Literature
+ The Rise of Revolutionary Populism and Russian Marxism, 1855- 90
+ Serge Witte and Accelerated Industrialization, 1891-1903
+ The Development of Radical Political Parties, 1892-1904
+ Imperialism in Asia and the Russo-Japanese War, 1894-1905
o The Last Years of Tsardom
+ The Revolution of 1905 and Counterrevolution, 1905-07
+ The Tenuous Regimes of Stolypin and Kokovstev, 1907-14
+ The Return to an Active Balkan Policy, 1906-13
+ Russia at War, 1914-16
+ The Strains of the War Effort and the Weakening of Tsarism
* Chapter 2 - Historical Setting: 1917 to 1982 (Thomas Skallerup)
o Revolutions and Civil War
+ The February Revolution
+ The Period of Dual Power
+ The Bolshevik Revolution
+ Civil War and War Communism
o The Era of New Economic Policy
+ Lenin's Leadership
+ Stalin's Rise to Power
+ Foreign Policy, 1921-28
+ Society and Culture in the 1920s
o Transformation and Terror
+ Industrialization and Collectivization
+ The Period of the Purges
+ Mobilization of Society
+ Foreign Policy, 1928-39
o War Years
+ Prelude to War
+ The Great Patriotic War
o Reconstruction and Cold War
+ Reconstruction Years
+ The Cold War
+ Death of Stalin
o The Khrushchev Era
+ Collective Leadership and the Rise of Khrushchev
+ Foreign Policy under Khrushchev
+ Khrushchev's Reforms and Fall
o The Brezhnev Era
+ Collective Leadership and the Rise of Brezhnev
+ Foreign Policy of a Superpower
+ The Economy
+ Culture and the Arts
+ Death of Brezhnev
* Chapter 3 - Physical Environment and Population (David E. McClave)
o Physical Environment
+ Global Position and Boundaries
+ Administrative-Political-Territorial Divisions
+ Topography and Drainage Geography of the Soviet Union
+ Climate Geography of the Soviet Union
+ Natural Resources Geography of the Soviet Union
+ Environmental Concerns Geography of the Soviet Union
o Population
+ Vital Statistics
+ Age and Sex Structure
+ Mortality and Fertility
+ Urbanization
+ Migration
+ Distribution and Density
+ Marriage, Divorce, and the Family
+ Population Problems and Policies
* Chapter 4 - Nationalities and Religions (Ihor Y. Gawdiak)
o Nationalities of the Soviet Union
+ Slavic Nationalities
# Russians
# Ukrainians
# Belorussians
# Other Slavs
+ Baltic Nationalities
# Lithuanians
# Latvians
# Estonians
+ Nationalities of the Caucasus
# Armenians
# Georgians
# Azerbaydzhanis
# Other Nationalities of the Caucasus
+ Central Asian Nationalities
# Uzbeks
# Kazakhs
# Kirgiz
# Tadzhiks
# Turkmens
+ Other Major Nationalities
# Moldavians
# Tatars
# Jews
# Chuvash
# Bashkirs
# Mordvins
# Germans
# Others
o Religious Groups in the Soviet Union
+ Orthodox
# Russian Orthodox Church
# Georgian Orthodox Church
# Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church
+ Armenian Apostolic
+ Catholic
# Roman Catholic Church
# Ukrainian Catholic Church
+ Protestant
+ Muslim
o Policy Toward Nationalities and Religions in Practice
o Manifestations of National Assertiveness
+ Baltic Nationalities
+ Armenians
+ Ukrainians
+ Central Asian Nationalities
+ Russians
+ Other Nationalities
* Chapter 5 - Social Structure (Kenneth E. Nyirady)
o Formation of Soviet Society
o Stratification of Soviety Society
+ Socio-Occupational Groupings
# The Elite
# White-Collar Workers
# Blue-Collar Workers and Manual Laborers
# Agricultural Workers
+ Other Determinants of Social Position
# Education
# Party Membership
# Nationality
+ Benefits of Social Position
# Monetary Compensation
# Noncash Benefits and Access to Goods and Services
# Occupational Prestige
+ Urban-Rural Cleavage
# Differences in Life-Styles
# Structure of Rural Society
# Decreasing Social Differences
o Social Mobility
o Social Organizations
+ Trade Unions
+ Youth Organizations
+ Sports Organizations
o Gender and Family Roles
+ Role of Women
+ Male-Female Relationships
# Marriage
# Roles in Marriage
# Divorce
# Sex and Contraception
+ The Soviet Family Family in the Soviet Union
# Evolution of the Soviet FamilyFamily in the Soviet Union
# Family SizeFamily in the Soviet Union
# Family and Kinship StructuresFamily in the Soviet Union
# Function of Family Family in the Soviet Union
* Chapter 6 - Education, Health, and Welfare (Irene M. Steckler)
o Education
+ Philosophy and Aims
+ Control and Administration
+ Pedagogy and Planning
+ Institutions of Learning
# Preschool
# Secondary Education
# Special Education
# Higher Education
# Teacher Training
+ Quality, Reform, and Funding
o Health Care
+ Provision of Medical Care
+ Declining Health Care in the 1970s and 1980s
o Welfare
+ Pension System
+ Workers' Compensation
+ Other Assistance
* Chapter 7 - The Communist Party (Stephen R. Burant)
o Lenin's Conception of the Party
+ Theoretical Underpinnings
+ Democratic Centralism
o Party Legitimacy
o Central Party Institutions
+ Party Congress
+ Party Conference
+ Central Committee
+ Central Auditing Commission
+ Party Control Committee
+ Politburo
+ Secretariat
+ Commissions
+ General Secretary: Power and Authority
o Intermediate-Level Party Organizations
+ Republic Party Organization
+ Oblast-Level Organization
+ District- and City-Level Organization
o Primary Party Organization
o Nomenklatura
+ The Party's Appointment Authority
+ Patron-Client Relations
o Party Membership
+ Selection Procedures
+ Training
o Social Composition of the Party
* Chapter 8 - Government Structure and Functions (Barry A. Zulauf, Stephen R. Burant, and James P. Nichol)
o Constitutional Authority of Government
+ Early Soviet Constitutions
# The 1918 Constitution
# The 1924 Constitution
# The 1936 Constitution
+ The 1977 Constitution
# Amendments to the 1977 Constitution
# Amendment Process
# Constitutional Rights
# Role of the Citizen
# State Symbols
o Central Government
+ Administrative Organs
# Council of Ministers
# Chairman of the Council of Ministers
# Council of Ministers Presidium
# Ministerial System
# Party Control of the Ministerial Apparatus
+ Congress of People's Deputies
# Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies
# Deputies and Citizen Involvement
+ Supreme Soviet
# Organs of the Supreme Soviet
# Presidium
# Chairman
# Soviet of the Union and Soviet of Nationalities
# Sessions of the Supreme Soviet
# Commissions and Committees
# Legislative Process
# Party Controls
+ Control Organs
# Court System
# Procuracy
# Committees of People's Control
# Law
o Territorial Administration
+ Republic Level
# Legal Status
# Government
+ Provincial and District Levels
o Elections
* Chapter 9 - Mass Media and the Arts (Joshua Spero)
o Politicization of the Mass Media and the Arts
+ Leninist Principles
+ Socialist Realism
o Administration of the Mass Media and the Arts
+ The Party Role
+ The Government Role
o The Mass Media
+ Newspapers
+ Magazines and Journals
+ Radio
+ Television and Video Cassette Recorders
+ Computers
o The Arts
+ Literature
+ Cinema
+ Theater
+ Music
+ Painting, Sculpture, and the Graphic Arts
* Chapter 10 - Foreign Policy (James P. Nichol)
o Ideology and Objectives Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
o Foreign Policy Making and Execution
+ The Foreign Policy Makers
+ Departments of the Central Committee
+ Higher State and Government Organizations
+ The Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet
+ The Council of Ministers and Its Presidium
+ The Ministry of Foreign Affairs
o Instruments of Influence
+ Diplomatic Relations
+ Party and State Visits Abroad
+ Friendship and Cooperation Treaties
+ Communist Parties Abroad
o Soviet-United States Relations
o Soviet-West European Relations
+ France
+ West Germany
+ Britain
+ Spain and Portugal
+ Scandinavia
o Soviet-East European Relations
o Sino-Soviet Relations
o Soviet-Japanese Relations
o The Soviet Union and the Third World
+ The Middle East and North Africa
# Turkey
# Iran and Iraq
# Other Middle Eastern States
+ Asia
# Afghanistan
# India
# Southeast Asia
+ Sub-Saharan Africa
# Angola
# Ethiopia
# Mozambique
+ Central and South America
o The Soviet Union and the Nuclear Arms Control
o The Soviet Union and the United Nations
* Chapter 11 - Economic Structure and policy (Becky Gates)
o Economic Structure
+ Nature of the National Economy
+ Labor
+ Retail and Wholesale Distribution System
+ Financial System
o Economic Planning and Control
+ Planning Process
+ Reforming the Planning System
+ Tools of Control
o Economic Policy
+ Past Priorities
+ The Twelfth Five-Year Plan, 1986-90
* Chapter 12 - Industry (Glenn E. Curtis)
o Development of Soviet Industry
o Industrial Resources
+ Raw Materials
+ Geographic Location Factors
+ The Territorial Production Complexes and Geographic Expansion
+ The Labor Force and Perestroika
o Industrial Organization
+ The Complexes and the Ministries
+ The Industrial Planning System
+ Structural Reform of Industry
+ The Military-Industrial Complex
+ Industrial Research and Design
o Machine Building and Metal Working
+ The Structure and Status of the Machine-Building and Metal- Working Complex
+ The Planning and Investment Process of the Machine-Building and Metal-Working Complex
+ The Location of the Machine-Building Industry
+ The Automotive Industry
+ The Electronics Industry
o Metallurgy
+ Role of Metallurgy
+ Metallurgy Planning and Problems
+ Metallurgical Combine Locations and Major Producers
+ Nonferrous Metals
o Chemicals
+ Plastics
+ Petrochemicals
+ Other Branches of the Chemical Industry
+ Chemical Planning Goals
o Fuels
+ Fuel Resource Base
+ Oil
+ Natural Gas
+ Coal
+ Uranium
o Power Engineering
+ Energy Planning Goals
+ The Balance among Energy Sources
+ Obstacles to Power Supply
+ Heat and Cogeneration
o The Consumer Industry
+ Consumer Supply in the 1980s
+ The Logic and Goals of Consumer Production
+ Textiles and Wood Pulp
* Chapter 13 - Agriculture (Ronald D. Bachman)
o Policy and Administration
+ Stalin's Legacy
+ Evolution of an Integrated Food Policy
o Land Use
o Production
+ Grain
+ Technical Crops
+ Forage Crops
+ Potatoes and Vegetables
+ Other Crops
+ Animal Husbandry
+ Forestry
+ Fishing
+ The Twelfth Five-Year Plan, 1986-90
* Chapter 14 - Transportation and Communications (Boris Hlynsky)
o Railroads
+ Historical Background, 1913-39
+ World War II
+ The Postwar Period, 1946-60
+ Organization and Equipment of the Railroads
+ Passenger Operations
+ The Baykal-Amur Main Line
+ Other New Construction
+ Metropolitan Railways
o Automotive Transport
+ Development of Automotive Transport
+ Freight Transportation by Trucks
+ Passenger Transportation
o Inland Waterways
+ Development of Waterways
+ The Waterway System
+ River Ports and Facilities
+ Passenger Transportation
o Merchant Marine
+ Initial Developments
+ Fleet Operations
o Civil Aviation
+ Postwar Evolution of the Air Fleet
+ Aeroflot Operations
o Pipelines
o Communications
* Chapter 15 - Foreign Trade (Malinda K. Goodrich) Foreign trade of the Soviet Union o Development of the State Monopoly on Foreign TradeForeign trade of the Soviet Union o Structure of the Foreign Trade BureaucracyForeign trade of the Soviet Union + AdministrationForeign trade of the Soviet Union + OperationForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Structural Reforms, 1986 to Mid-1988 Foreign trade of the Soviet Union o Trade with Socialist CountriesForeign trade of the Soviet Union + The Council for Mutual Economic AssistanceForeign trade of the Soviet Union + YugoslaviaForeign trade of the Soviet Union + ChinaForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Cambodia, Laos, and North Korea Foreign trade of the Soviet Union o Trade with Western Industrialized CountriesForeign trade of the Soviet Union + The United StatesForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Western EuropeForeign trade of the Soviet Union + JapanForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Finland Foreign trade of the Soviet Union o Trade with Third World CountriesForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Balance of TradeForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Composition of TradeForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Africa, Asia, and Latin AmericaForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Countries of Socialist OrientationForeign trade of the Soviet Union + Trade with the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Foreign trade of the Soviet Union o Gorbachev's Economic Reforms Foreign trade of the Soviet Union
* Chapter 16. Science and Technology (Cathleen A. Campbell)
o Early Development
o The Administration of Science and Technology
+ Policy Making
+ Planning
+ Financing
o Science and Ideology
o Research, Development and Production Organizations
o Soviet Innovation: Problems and Solutions
o Technology and Information Transfer
o Military Research and Development
o Training
* Chapter 17 - Military Doctrine and Strategic Concerns (Eugenia V. Osgood)
o Marxist-Leninist Theory of War
+ War as a Continuation of Politics
+ Laws of War
o The Party and Military Doctrine and Policy
+ Evolution of Military Doctrine
+ Military Doctrine in the Late 1980s
+ Doctrine and Weapons Programs
+ Military Policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
o Military Science
+ Laws of Armed Conflict
+ Principles of Military Art
+ Military Art
# Military Strategy
# Nuclear Strategy in the 1950s
# The Sokolovskii Era, l962-68
# New Strategic Options, l968-89
# Operational Art
# Tactics
o Strategic Missions of the Armed Forces
+ Threat Assessments and Force Requirements
+ Offensive and Defensive Strategic Missions
+ Strategic Offense
# Strategic Operation in a Theater of Military Operations
# Strategic Defense
o Global Strategic Concerns
+ Force Projection on the Periphery
+ Military Presence in the Third World
o Arms Control and Military Objectives
+ Strategic Arms Control
# Averting a World War
# Retaining a Capability to Fight and to Win
+ Objectives in Space
# Negotiations
# Soviet Space Weapons Development
+ Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Arms Control
# Threat Reduction
# Denuclearization of Europe
+ Conventional Arms Control
* Chapter 18. Armed Forces and Defense Organization (Karl Wheeler Soper)
o Organizational Development and Combat Experience
o Strategic Leadership of the Armed Forces
+ Defense Council
+ Main Military Council
+ Ministry of Defense
+ General Staff
o The Armed Services
+ Strategic Rocket Forces
+ Ground Forces
# Motorized Rifle Troops and Tank Troops
# Rocket Troops and Artillery
# Air Defense of Ground Forces
# Chemical Troops, Engineer Troops, and Signal Troops
+ Air Forces
# Strategic Air Armies
# Frontal Aviation
# Military Transport Aviation
+ Air Defense Forces
# Antiaircraft Rocket Troops and Air Defense Aviation
# Missile and Space Defenses
+ Naval Forces
# Submarine Forces
# Surface Forces
# Naval Aviation
# Naval Infantry
# Coastal Defense Forces
+ Airborne Troops and Special-Purpose Forces
+ Rear Services
+ Civil Defense
+ Specialized and Paramilitary Forces
# Internal Troops
# Border Troops
o Territorial Organization of the Armed Forces
+ Military Districts
+ Fleets, Flotillas, and Squadrons
+ Groups of Forces Stationed Abroad
o The Party and the Armed Forces
+ Political-Military Relations
+ Military Representation in the Party
+ Party Control in the Armed Forces
o Military Economics
+ Defense Spending
+ Military Industries and Production
+ Military Technology
o Uniforms and Rank Insignia
o Military Manpower
+ Premilitary Training
+ Conscripts
# Life in the Soviet Armed Forces
# Noncommissioned Officers
# National Minorities in the Armed Forces
# Women in the Armed Forces
+ Officers
+ Reserves and Wartime Mobilization
* Chapter 19 - Internal Security (Amy W. Knight)
o Predecessors of the Committee for State Security and the Ministry Internal Affairs
+ The Tsarist Period
+ Soviet Predecessor Organizations, 1917-54
o The Security Apparatus and Kremlin Politics
+ Khrushchev Period
+ After Khrushchev
+ Gorbachev Era
o Organization of the Committee for State Security
+ Structure
+ Functions and Internal Organization
+ Party Control
+ Personnel
o Domestic Security and the Committee for State Security
+ Legal Prerogatives
+ Policy
+ Special Departments in the Armed Forces
o The Foreign Intelligence Role of the Committee for State Security
+ Organization
+ Intelligence and Counterintelligence
+ Active Measures
+ Influence on Foreign Policy
o The Ministry of Internal Affairs
+ Functions and Organization
+ Leadership
+ Control by the Party
o The Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Judicial Organs, and Non-Political Crime
+ Socialist Legality
+ The Procuracy
+ Military Justice
+ The Judiciary and the Legal Profession
+ Legal Codes and Abuses of the System
+ Nonpolitical Crime and Punishment
o Internal Security Troops
+ Border Troops of the Committee for State Security
+ Security Troops of the Committee for State Security
+ Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
* Appendices
o Appendix B. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Malinda K. Goodrich) Comecon
o Appendix C. The Warsaw Pact (Karl Wheeler Soper)
* Bibliography
* Glossary