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The media of Ghana, now one of the most free in Africa, has previously undergone a series of government overthrows by military leaders and periods of severe restriction. Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.[1] Reporters Without Borders classify the environment as being 31st out of 173, with 1st being most free.[2]

19th century

The media in the Gold Coast first emerged in the nineteenth century with the publication of The Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer in 1822.[3] The paper had several functions: to provide information for civil servants and European merchants; and to help promote literacy rates and rural development amongst the local population - whilst encouraging unity with the colonial British government.[3] In the mid nineteenth century, a diverse number of African owned papers appeared which were largely unrestricted by the colonial government. This led to a surge of anti-colonial press, which in part, led to the independence of Ghana.[3]

Post independence

Following the March 6, 1957 declaration of independence by Ghana from the United Kingdom, there were only around 4 newspapers. Leader Kwame Nkrumah eventually controlled all the press in Ghana and saw it as an instrument of state authority, providing propaganda which encouraged national unity and creating a hierarchal system of state apparatus to manage the media.[3] Transfer of the media had changed hands from a civilian to a military government, and a series of arrests and imprisonment of political opponents by Nkrumah had a chilling effect on the media.[4] The opposition Ashanti Pioneer which had operated since the 1930s was shut down by Nkrumah after being subject to censorship.[3] After Nkrumah's overthrow in a coup, many state outlets changed hands, though still under the control of the ruling party. The National Liberation Council imposed stricter controls on domestic private outlets, for example the Rumors’ Decree in 1966 which prevented anyone from suing government owned newspapers .[4] In 1969, the democratically elected civilian government of Kofi Busia that followed the NLC were left with a large number of media outlets under state control. Busia repealled various acts and dismissed the owner of the state owned Daily Graphic for opposing Busia who had appealed for African dialogue with the apartheid government in South Africa.[4] However, when Ignatius Kutu Acheampong overthrew the Busia government, he reinstated strict media control and clamped down on opposition outlets by cutting off foreign exchange.[4] However, a number of opposition media remained unimpeded during the Acheampong regime, and by 1978, had grown in their calls for a multi-party democracy in Ghana.[4] The regime of Acheampong was overthrown in May 1978 by General Akuffo, who reversed some of his predecessors media policies and released jailed journalists and opposition members. This led to the establishment of two party papers: the Star of the Popular Front Party (PFP) and the Gong Gong of the People's National Party (PNP). The Akuffo regime was short lived, ending in another coup d'état by the AFRC headed by Jerry Rawlings, who repealed the press laws that were passed by Acheampong. Rawlings replaced the chief editor of the Daily Graphic who criticised the AFRC executions,[4] though they had no authority to do so as it undermined the Constitution of the Third Republic, which stated they had to be replaced by the Press Commission.[5] After eight months of the AFRC regime, which had promised media reform but in the end did not materialise, power was returned to the democratically elected PNP with Hilla Limann on September 24, 1979. Limann was an advocate of liberal media reform, establishing a 12 member Press Commission on July 25, 1980.[4] In a speech he said: “ I shall, as elected President of Ghana, be forever prepared to submit to the acid test of public judgement the claims of those who may think that they represent the public more than me or any other political leader. Bluff, snobbery and arrogance on all sides must now cease, so that the Press Commission can function in a way that it has been envisaged by those who have never had any personal axe to grind. I have long been one of the protaganists myself. Since the functions of the Press Commission have clearly been spelt out in the Constitution, I can do no more than reassure its members and our journalists that my government will respect, uphold and defend the Constitution and thus do everything in our power to help the Press Commission discharge its obligation , in the overall interest of the public to which we are all to varying degrees accountable.[6] ” The Press Commission, as enshrined in law, were to investigate complaints about the press, uphold press freedom and provide necessary regulation and licensing to media outlets.[4] During Limann's rule, he respected the new Constitution and accepted criticism from the media. This did not last long however, as John Rawlings, citing "corruption and maladministration", once again seized power under the Provisional National Defence Council on December 31, 1981, and repealed the liberal media reforms instigated by Limann.[3] Under the new government, the Third Constitution, along with the Press Commission, was abolished. Through the state owned Daily Graphic on January 5, 1982, he told the press to lead the "Holy War" and direct the revolution.[7] Rawlings passed laws that prevented criticism of the government or its policies, dismissed editors critical of him and passed various laws such as the Preventive Custody Law and Newspaper Licensing Law which allowed indefinite detention without trial of journalists, and stifled private media development respectively.[4] The PNDC Secretary of Information Joyce Aryee in 1983 defended direct government control: “ I don't see the press as lying outside the political institutions that we already have. This is where I feel people ought to realise that the press differs from country to country. In a situation like ours, where we need to conscientize people, and where we have an illiteracy problem, you use institutions like the press to do the conscientization.[8] ” The policies not only affected print media but also the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation, with several dismissals or premature retirement. [4] As a result, some media avoided all discussions of politics altogether and focused on other topics like sport or entertainment instead.[3]

1992-2000

In 1992, Ghana promulgated a new constitution, and returned to democractic rule on 7th January 1993. Rawlings as part of the National Democratic Congress (he retired a Flight Lieutenent of the Ghana Armed Forces) liberalised the media by repealing previous laws the PNDC signed in. The private media, which had previously been silenced under the regime for the past decade, used the new press freedom laws to voice criticism at Rawlings of the years of strict laws and published several accusations of violent authoritarianism and drug abuse.[3] The state media however, maintained a favourable image of Rawlings. Rawlings acknowledged the years of media repression, though he defended the military coup: “ All that has happened during the last decade cannot be divorced from today's constituional order. No one can fail to appreciate the significance of the 31st December Revolution in bringing Ghanaians to the threshold of the Fourth Republic, and in establishing firm principles of social justice which will make the constitution a living reality - to do so would mean distorting Ghana's history and putting aside those vital lessons which would indeed enrich this phase of Ghanaian experience.[9] ” Furthermore, Rawlings had pledged to uphold Chapter 12 of the Constitution of Ghana, promoting press freedom, responsibility of both private and state outlets and these freedoms to be additional to human rights.[1] A new 15 member National Press Commission (later Ghanaian Media Commission) was created that was independent of government, which would uphold the aforementioned responsibilities. Despite these new reforms, President Rawlings and the NDC government remained critical of the private press, calling it "politically irresponsible" and motivated by profit.[3] One government official claimed the private media "tested the limits of the government", whilst others accused it of portraying Parliament as inferior.[4] A group named Friends of Democracy claimed it had 1,000 signatories protesting against the private media.[10] Editors from the Free Press and New Statesman had reported being sent death threats from the NDC for criticising the regime.[4] Valerie Sackey who was an assistant to President Rawlings, noted that the private press had a duty to provide legitimate criticism of the government and to act responsibly, rather than simply portraying that the government was attempting to muzzle them.[4]

2000-present

After the election in 2000 of John Kufuor the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor was a supporter of press freedom and repealed the criminal libel law, though maintained that the media had to act responsibly.[3] The Ghanaian media has been described as "one of the most unfettered" in Africa, operating with little restriction on private media. The private press often carries criticism of government policy.[11] The media were vigorous in their coverage of the 2008 Ghanaian presidential election, and the Ghanaian Journalists Association (GJA) praised John Atta Mills on his election, hoping to foster a good media-government relationship.[12] During a 1999 interview, the GJA described how the media has helped promote democracy in the country: "The press has forced the Government to accept that officials are accountable...It is for me a positive indication that the media of Ghana have made some impact on democracy since the foundation of the 4th Republic." – June 4, 1999.[13]

Relations with foreign media

The Ghanaian media holds good relations with foreign media, with many international journalists from Western, African and Asian organizations based in the capital, Accra. Journalists are not hindered during their work, and information is not censored into or out of the country.[3] The main news agency, Ghana News Agency, was set up in 1957 by Nkrumah to provide balanced information on local and international news. Reuters helped provide the agency with guidance and technical assistance until 1961. The agency had subscriptions from over 140 organizations and six news agencies in 2000.[3]

Newspapers

Main article: List of newspapers in Ghana Around 135 newspapers are published in Ghana, including 16 independent newspapers.[3][14] The contribution of a large number of state and private newspapers create a diverse media environment in Ghana. State papers like the Daily Graphic and Ghanaian Times tend to promote and encourage support for government policies and follow a conservative line, unlike private press which has exposed lavish styles of government officials and mix-management of government affairs.[15] Government papers rarely air opposition views.[15] The Ghanaian Media Commission, an independent commission, was set up to monitor and receive complaints about the media.[16] The commission had received 50 complaints in 2002, and in May 2001, forced the Ghanaian Chronicle to apologies for publishing "false stories" on individuals without substantial evidence. However, similar rulings have been ignored due to a lack of authority.[16]

Television and radio

There were seven broadcast stations in 2007.[17] Amongst the stations, there is the state-run Ghana Broadcasting Corporation and two private channels, TV3 and Metro TV went on the air in 1997.[3] Foreign stations such as CNN and BBC are freely accessible. FM radio began in 1988[18] which allowed foreign radio stations into the country, such as Voice of America, Radio France International and BBC broadcasts on 101.3FM.[11] A public demonstration in 1995 over seizure of equipment from a private station, Radio EYE, forced the government to issue many FM frequencies for other private stations, creating a new era of "broadcast pluralism".[18] Interactive phone-in discussions on local and national issues are very popular on Ghanaian radio.[11][18] In addition to English-language stations, there are several in local dialect.[19] In 2007, 86 FM and 3 shortwave stations existed.[17] Electronic media

         The internet was accessible by around 650,000 Ghanaians in 2007,[17] less than 2% of the population and is unrestricted by the government.[14]

The media in Africa is expanding rapidly due to advances in telecommunications, especially mobile phones and the internet. By learning from developed countries, Africa has not been forced to 'reinvent the wheel'. Africans are a resilient people and although resources have been limited at times, it has produced people who could be referred to as genuine 'media giants'. In newspaper reporting, many Africans have won international media awards. In writing both prose and poetry, many awards have also been won by Africans, and Africa now claims a Nobel Laurete in Literature, Prof. Wole Soyinka of Nigeria. Contents [hide]

   * 1 History
   * 2 Communications
   * 3 Digital media and internet
   * 4 Television
   * 5 Radio
   * 6 Print media
   * 7 Literature
   * 8 See also
   * 9 References
         o 9.1 External links

[edit] History

In 1794 the first printing press arrived in Africa delivered to Freetown, Sierra Leone but this was destroyed by a French raiding party before it was ever used.[1] When another press arrived in 1800 the newspaper the Sierra Leone Advertiser began being printed. [1] [edit] Communications

Advances in satellite communication, and its availability in Africa (some countries on the continent have their own communications satellites) has meant that some local television stations are now viewed outside their terrestrial broadcast areas. [edit] Digital media and internet

Digital media and internet are increasingly part of the African media landscape. One specific development worth mentioning, is the rise of mobile reporting. Journalist across the continent are increasingly using the mobile phone as their primary reporting tool needed to collect text, photo and video. This content is often distributed via the internet and is an early example of convergence in the internet and mobile medium.

Pan African community based websites are also emerging on the scene and reflect trends in the Web 2.0 movement seen in other parts of the world. [edit] Television

A 24-hour pan-African news and information channel called A24 will start broadcasting from Nairobi in 2008 by satellite and the internet. [edit] Radio [edit] Print media

Historically, Nigeria has boasted one of the most free and resilient newspaper presses of any African country, even under its past military dictatorships, most of whom have shown an intolerance of the press. In the rest of the continent, vibrant journalism is also getting to be the order of the day. As in more developed countries, many journalists, in a bid to uphold the integrity of the profession, have preferred to go to jail rather than betray the confidentiality of a source.

In 2005, journalists representing 23 African nations met in Cameroon and established the Society for the Development of Media in Africa (Société pour le Développement des Médias Africains, SDMA).[1] [edit] Literature