User:WotherspoonSmith/beckwith

there have been several calls to dissect these articles to see if any can form the basis of an article. No-one (including myself) seems to want to do this alone. If anyone does want to complete this, in whole or in part, here is some initial links that may help someone trying to do so (JSTOR account needed for many):
(original quotes are in italics,

asterisk used to denote additional commentary.

~~strikethrough~~ strikethrough to denote clearly not usable, even if original article is found. Note that lack of Google Scholar citation is noted for some. This is not inferring anything other than what it says

Beckwith article

below is the Beckwith "The Effect of Intelligence on Religious Faith" article from Free Enquiry, as best as I can find it (I have not seen the original) from http://www.huppi.com/kangaroo/L-thinkingchristians.htm and http://kspark.kaist.ac.kr/Jesus/Intelligence%20&%20religion.htm and others (http://www.google.com/search?q=%22The+Effect+of+Intelligence+on+Religious+Faith%22-wikipedia)
It may be more detailed in Beckwith's http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294(198612)25%3A4%3C528%3ATDOURF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P "The Decline of U.S. Religious Faith, 1912-1984 : and the Effects of Education and Intelligence on such Faith" (which has certain qualifiers in the title, suggesting Beckwith may be more robust in his approach than the selected edition below). The review/ paraphrase includes fewer than the 43 articles the original is said to include, no reason is given for the selective citation. It also includes some material that was not in the original, as it was written after the publication date.

The following is a review of several studies of IQ and religiosity, paraphrased and summarized from Burnham Beckwith's article, "The Effect of Intelligence on Religious Faith," Free Inquiry, Spring 1986: (1)

STUDIES OF STUDENTS

1. Thomas Howells, 1927

Study of 461 students showed religiously conservative students "are, in general, relatively inferior in intellectual ability."
* No mention on Google Scholar.

2. Hilding Carlsojn, 1933

Study of 215 students showed that "there is a tendency for the more intelligent undergraduate to be sympathetic toward… atheism."
Possibly cited in "Factor Analysis in Educational Research" John B. Carroll, Robert F. Schweiker Review of Educational Research, Vol. 21, No. 5, Methods of Research and Appraisal in Education (Dec., 1951), pp. 368-388 doi:10.2307/1168304 see http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0034-6543(195112)21%3A5%3C368%3AFAIER%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F

original not available through google scholar

3. Abraham Franzblau, 1934

Confirming Howells and Carlson, tested 354 Jewish children, aged 10-16. Found a negative correlation between religiosity and IQ as measured by the Terman intelligence test.

Probably FRANZBLAU, ABRAHAM NORMAN—"Religious Belief and Character among Jewish Adolescents." Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934. http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentId=7443 "The organized religions of the world have always maintained that adherence to their tenets and traditions is creative of finer character. This study represents the first attempt which has been made to test the validity of this assumption in a scientific manner." cited by 2

title and abstract suggest intelligence is not focus of this study. Would need reading of full article to confirm if this is suitable wikipedia material.

4. Thomas Symington, 1935

Tested 400 young people in colleges and church groups. He reported, "There is a constant positive relation in all the groups between liberal religious thinking and mental ability… There is also a constant positive relation between liberal scores and intelligence…"
Probably (book) "Religious liberals and conservatives; a comparison of those who are liberal in their religious thinking and those who are conservative" by Thomas Alexander Symington, Publisher: New York City, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935.

I think (I can't be sure) that Beckwith has equated "liberal thinking" with "less religious" here, as he does in other studies (below).

5. Vernon Jones, 1938

Tested 381 students, concluding "a slight tendency for intelligence and liberal attitudes to go together."
Probably "Attitudes Toward Peace and War" Vernon Jones The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Jan., 1942), pp. 5-13 doi:10.2307/1975399 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1546(194201)13%3A1%3C5%3AATPAW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H

While the publication date is 1942, the title page mentions the study starting shortly before declaration of war.
* I am struggling to see the relevance of this article, unless "liberal" relates directly to "religious"
* title and abstract state religiosity was not the focus of the study

6. A. R. Gilliland, 1940

At variance with all other studies, found "little or no relationship between intelligence and attitude toward god."
Possibly "Student Attitudes Toward Participation in the War" E. T. Katzoff, A. R. Gilliland Sociometry, Vol. 6, No. 2 (May, 1943), pp. 149-155 doi:10.2307/2785354 OR one of the stdies mentioned in this article. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-0431(194305)6%3A2%3C149%3ASATPIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0
* not available on google scholar

7. Donald Gragg, 1942

Reported an inverse correlation between 100 ACE freshman test scores and Thurstone "reality of god" scores.
probably "Religious Attitudes of Denominational College Students," The Journal of Social Psychology, 15:245-54 (1942), cited in "Religious Attitudes of A Selected Group of Negro College Students" LeRoy B. Allen The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Spring, 1947), pp. 142-147 doi:10.2307/2966181 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2984(194721)16%3A2%3C142%3ARAOASG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3
* original not available on google scholar

8. Brown and Love, 1951

At the University of Denver, tested 613 male and female students. The mean test scores of non-believers was 119 points, and for believers it was 100. The non-believers ranked in the 80th percentile, and believers in the 50th. Their findings "strongly corroborate those of Howells."
* unable to find reference on google scholar

9. Michael Argyle, 1958

Concluded that "although intelligent children grasp religious concepts earlier, they are also the first to doubt the truth of religion, and intelligent students are much less likely to accept orthodox beliefs."
"Religious behaviour" http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=HlqC5kH1Sg5fY9KwBN6Tprvp32qvQGvL8vgTlJGxPvXCQShgYnry!-1906358400?docId=9485970
Appears to be one volume of "The Sociology of Religion" By Werner Stark, Taylor & Francis Group(book)

"http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R7rSHGIQ1BQC&oi=fnd&pg=PP15&dq=1958+m-argyle&ots=j-Y21ZFE7A&sig=1e_e12PGtg7x9oUZh0b_rdyVbv0
cited by 27 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&cites=11445523810523236874

10. Jeffrey Hadden, 1963

Found no correlation between intelligence and grades. This was an anomalous finding, since GPA corresponds closely with intelligence. Other factors may have influenced the results at the University of Wisconsin.
probably "An Analysis of Some Factors Associated with Religion and Political Affiliation in a College Population" Jeffrey K. Hadden Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Spring, 1963), pp. 209-216 doi:10.2307/1385072 This article consists of 8 page(s). http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294(196321)2%3A2%3C209%3AAAOSFA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0

11. Young, Dustin and Holtzman, 1966

Average religiosity decreased as GPA rose.

probably "Change in attitude toward religion in a Southern University." RK Young, DS Dustin, WH Holtzman - Psychol Rep, 1966 - ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Psychol Rep. 1966 Feb;18(1):39-46.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=5908500&dopt=Citation

cited by "Change and Stability of Religious Orientations during College: Part I. Freshman-Senior Comparisons"

Kenneth A. Feldman Review of Religious Research, Vol. 11, No. 1 (Autumn, 1969), pp. 40-60 doi:10.2307/3510552 This article consists of 21 page(s). ... which may be a further asset http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0034-673X(196923)11%3A1%3C40%3ACASORO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L#abstract

12. James Trent, 1967

Polled 1400 college seniors. Found little difference, but high-ability students in his sample group were over-represented.

possibly "Commitment and Conformity in the American College." JW Trent, JL Craise - Journal of Social Issues, 1967 - eric.ed.gov ... Source: Journal of Social Issues, v23 n3 p34-51 1967. Peer-Reviewed: N/A. Publisher ... 48104. Publication Date: 1967-00-00. Pages: 18. Pub Types: N/A. http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED030357&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED030357

and/or [BOOK] "Catholics in College: Religious Commitment and the Intellectual Life" JW Trent, J Golds - 1967 - University of Chicago Press

13. C. Plant and E. Minium, 1967

The more intelligent students were less religious, both before entering college and after 2 years of college.
probably (note initial changed of WT Plant to C Plant) "Differential personality development in young adults of markedly different aptitude levels." WT Plant, EW Minium - J Educ Psychol, 1967 - ncbi.nlm.nih.gov J Educ Psychol. 1967 Jun;58(3):141-52. ... Differential personality development in young adults of markedly different aptitude levels. Plant WT, Minium EW. ... Cited by 2 - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=6043851&dopt=Citation pubmed

14. Robert Wuthnow, 1978

Of 532 students, 37 percent of Christians, 58 percent of apostates, and 53 percent of non-religious scored above average on SATs.
probably [BOOK] Experimentation in American Religion: The New Mysticisms and Their Implications for the Churches R Wuthnow - 1978 - University of California Press Cited by 16 - Related Articles - Web Search - Libraries Australia
OR
Peak experiences: Some empirical tests R Wuthnow - Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 1978 - eric.ed.gov ... Title: Peak Experiences: Some Empirical Tests. Authors: Wuthnow, Robert. ... Source: Journal of Humanistic Psychology, v18 n3 p59-75 Sum 1978, 78. Peer-Reviewed: N/A ... Cited by 15 http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ189886&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=EJ189886

15. Hastings and Hoge, 1967, 1974

Polled 200 college students and found no significant correlations.
Probably "Changes in Religion among College Students, 1948 to 1974" PK Hastings, R Hoge - Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1976 - JSTOR

http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294%28197609%2915%3A3%3C237%3ACIRACS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage

ALSO
"Religious and Moral Attitude Trends among College Students, 1948-84" PK Hastings, DR Hoge - Social Forces, 1986 - JSTOR

Cited by 6 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-7732%28198612%2965%3A2%3C370%3ARAMATA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage

16. Norman Poythress, 1975

Mean SATs for strongly antireligious (1148), moderately anti-religious (1119), slightly antireligious (1108), and religious (1022).

"A sample of 234 college undergraduates were clustered into relatively homogeneous religious types based on the similarity of their religious profiles on three scales of religious commitment delineated by Hunt (1972): Literal, Antiliteral, and Mythological. Consistent with Hunt's previous notions, the Mythological commitment was a prominent one among subjects tested. However, a second contention of Hunt's -- that proreligious subjects of different substantive orientations might differ in terms of personality characteristics -- was not supported. Literally-oriented religious Believers did not differ significantly from Mythologically-oriented Believers on measures of intelligence, authoritarianism, or racial prejudice. Religious Believers as a group were found to be significantly less intelligent and more authoritarian than religious Skeptics." http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294%28197509%2914%3A3%3C271%3ALAAMRO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage

cited by 5 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&cites=1230883346284564714

17. Wiebe and Fleck, 1980

Studied 158 male and female Canadian university students. They reported "nonreligious S's tended to be strongly intelligent" and "more intelligent than religious S's."
probably http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED178851&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED178851

ABSTRACT: Personality profiles of university freshmen (N=158) were compared across religious orientation and religious affiliation. The hypotheses that profiles of extrinsically religious and non-religious subjects would correlate significantly with each other, and that both would differ significantly from intrinsically religious subjects were supported by the data. The personality profiles included superego strength, emotional sensitivity, and liberalism. Differences were also found across religious affiliation for certain personality variables. (Author)

STUDENT BODY COMPARISONS

1. Rose Goldsen, 1952

Percentage of students who believe in a divine god: Harvard 30; UCLA 32; Dartmouth 35; Yale 36; Cornell 42; Wayne 43; Weslyan 43; Michigan 45; Fisk 60; Texas 62; North Carolina 68.

I fail to see the relevance of these statistics. If there is a US cultural thiing I'm missing, please let me know
- The universities listed with lower percentages are considered superior institutions. I certainly wouldn't call this a substantial finding, but it is relevant, at least.

2. National Review Study, 1970

Percentage of students who believe in a Spirit or Divine God: Reed 15; Brandeis 25; Sarah Lawrence 28; Williams 36; Stanford 41; Boston U. 41; Yale 42; Howard 47; Indiana 57; Davidson 59; S. Carolina 65; Marquette 77.

I fail to see the relevance of these statistics. If there is a US cultural thiing I'm missing, please let me know

3. Caplovitz and Sherrow, 1977

Apostasy rates rose continuously from 5 percent in "low" ranked schools to 17 percent in "high" ranked schools.

cited in Religious Socialization, Apostasy, and the Impact of Family Background Bruce Hunsberger, L. B. Brown Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Sep., 1984), pp. 239-251 doi:10.2307/1386039 This article consists of 13 page(s).

http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294%28198409%2923%3A3%3C239%3ARSAATI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage

original article not found on google scholar

4. Niemi, Ross, and Alexander, 1978

~~In elite schools, organized religion was judged important by only 26 percent of their students, compared with 44 percent of all students.~~

I fail to see the relevance of these statistics. If there is a US cultural thiing I'm missing, please let me know

STUDIES OF VERY-HIGH IQ GROUPS

1. Terman, 1959

Studied group with IQ's over 140. Of men, 10 percent held strong religious belief, of women 18 percent. Sixty-two percent of men and 57 percent of women claimed "little religious inclination" while 28 percent of the men and 23 percent of the women claimed it was "not at all important." Probably "Relationship between personality adjustment and high intelligence: Terman versus Hollingworth "

"The Gifted Group at Mid-life: Thirty-five Years' Follow-up of the Superior Child" LM Terman, MH Oden - 1959 - Stanford University Press

cited in Relationship between personality adjustment and high intelligence: Terman versus Hollingworth by Ingrid N. Grossberg , Dewey G. Cornell http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=Hf3QpqqGnnDnCyJyJX2X5pqvzsrPTqJv8CJJcv0T60hXtvJYLc02!-634891010?docId=5000109275

book not on google scholar

2. Warren and Heist, 1960

Found no differences among National Merit Scholars. Results may have been effected by the fact that NM scholars are not selected on the basis of intelligence or grades alone, but also on "leadership" and such like. "Personality Attributes of Gifted College Students" Warren and Heist Science 5 August 1960: 330-337 DOI: 10.1126/science.132.3423.330 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=13842936&dopt=Citation http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/132/3423/330 cited by 3 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&cites=16861626084881470347

3. Southern and Plant, 1968

Studied 42 male and 30 female members of Mensa. Mensa members were much less religious in belief than the typical American college alumnus or adult. unable to find on google scholar.

forty year old survey of 72 members of a club- is this really relevant anyway?

STUDIES Of SCIENTISTS

entire section marginally relevant to religiosity and intelligence (belongs in "science and religiosity?"?)

1. William S. Ament, 1927

C. C. Little, president of the University of Michigan, checked persons listed in Who's Who in America: "Unitarians, Episcopalians, Congregationalists, Universalists, and Presbyterians [who are less religious] are… far more numerous in Who's Who than would be expected on the basis of the population which they form. Baptists, Methodists, and Catholics are distinctly less numerous."

Ament confirmed Little's conclusion. He noted that Unitarians, the least religious, were more than 40 times as numerous in Who's Who as in the U.S. population.
"National Prominence and Religious Preference" Jefferson P. Selth Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Dec., 1987), pp. 547-550 doi:10.2307/1387104 This article consists of 4 page(s).
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294%28198712%2926%3A4%3C547%3ANPARP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-7&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage

This article also compares results of Leihman and Witty, and possibly others. The title suggests this is a study of prominence rather than intelligence.

2. Lehman and Witty, 1931

Identified 1189 scientists found in both Who's Who (1927) and American Men of Science (1927). Only 25 percent of those listed in the latter and 50 percent of those in the former reported their religious denomination, despite the specific request to do so, under the heading of "religious denomination (if any)." Well over 90 percent of the general population claims religious affiliation. The figure of 25 percent suggests far less religiosity among scientists.

Unitarians were 81.4 times as numerous among eminent scientists as non-Unitarians.

this article cited in: Psychologists and Religion: Professional Factors and Personal Belief Claude Ragan, H. Newton Malony, Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi Review of Religious Research, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Spring, 1980), pp. 208-217 doi:10.2307/3509885 This article consists of 10 page(s). http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0034-673X(198021)21%3A2%3C208%3APARPFA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I

Seems to be saying that more, not less, than average, claim membership of a denomination, which Beckman sees as evidence of low religiosity...
1927 look at mentions in other books. Dubious methodology of equating 'prominence' with intelligence, eighty years old, dubious methodology of equating denomination with degrees of religiosity. More an example of Beckman's dubious methodology than of intelligence and religiosity, IMHO (assuming commentary is Beckman's and not added afterwards).

3. Kelley and Fisk, 1951

Found a negative (-.39) correlation between the strength of religious values and research competence. [How these were measured is unknown.]

"how these are measured is unknown"- need i say more? unusable citation, not related to intelligence anyway

4. Ann Roe, 1953

Interviewed 64 "eminent scientists, nearly all members of the prestigious National Academy of Sciences or the American Philosophical Society. She reported that, while nearly all of them had religious parents and had attended Sunday school, 'now only three of these men are seriously active in church. A few others attend upon occasion, or even give some financial support to a church which they do not attend… All the others have long since dismissed religion as any guide to them, and the church plays no part in their lives… A few are militantly atheistic, but most are just not interested.'"

[BOOK] The Making of a Scientist A Roe - 1953 - Greenwood Publishing Group. The Making of a Scientist Roe, Anne. ISBN: 0837171512 Cited by 135 - Related Articles - Web Search - Libraries Australia

OR

[BOOK] A psychological study of eminent psychologists and anthropologists, and a comparison with biological … A Roe - 1953 - American Psychological Association Cited by 54 - Related Articles - Web Search

small sample, 1953, but large number of citations and appears to have qualitative focus. Citations may be for purposes other than intelligence/religion factors, though- these appear not to be focus of the books.

5. Francis Bello, 1954

Interviewed or questionnaired 107 nonindustrial scientists under the age of 40 judged by senior colleagues to be outstanding. Of the 87 responses, 45 percent claimed to be "agnostic or atheistic" and an additional 22 percent claimed no religious affiliation. For 20 most eminent, "the proportion who are now a-religious is considerably higher than in the entire survey group."

not usable by wikipedia. barely, if at all, relevant. Small sample group, more than 50 years old, and "judged by senior colleagues to be outstanding" is far from a measure of intelligence, which the commentators would be quick to point out if the results did not support their views.

6. Jack Chambers, 1964

Questionnaired 740 US psychologists and chemists. He reported, "The highly creative men… significantly more often show either no preference for a particular religion or little or no interest in religion." Found that the most eminent psychologists showed 40 percent no preference, 16 percent for the most eminent chemists.

only relevant if being intelligent is the same thing as being "highly creative men"

7. Vaughan, Smith, and Sjoberg, 1965

Polled 850 US physicists, zoologists, chemical engineers, and geologists listed in American Men of Science (1955) on church membership, and attendance patterns, and belief in afterlife. Of the 642 replies, 38.5 percent did not believe in an afterlife, whereas 31.8 percent did. Belief in immortality was less common among major university staff than among those employed by business, government, or minor universities. The Gallup poll taken about this time showed that two-thirds of the U.S. population believed in an afterlife, so scientists were far less religious than the typical adult.

only relevant if being intelligent is the same thing as being a scientist

Conclusion

The consensus here is clear: more intelligent people tend not to believe in religion. And this observation is given added force when you consider that the above studies span a broad range of time, subjects and methodologies, and yet arrive at the same conclusion.

~~This is the result even when the researchers are Christian conservatives themselves. One such researcher is George Gallup. Here are the results of a Fall 1995 Gallup poll:~~

~~Percentage of respondents who agreed with the following statements:~~

~~Religion is Religion can "very important "answer all or most~~
~~Respondents in their life" of today's problems"~~

Attended college 53 percent 58 percent No college 63 65
Income over $50,000 48 56 $30,000 - $50,000 56 62 $20,000 - $30,000 56 60 Under $20,000 66 66
Why does this correlation exist? The first answer that comes to mind is that religious beliefs tend to be more illogical or incoherent than secular beliefs, and intelligent people tend to recognize that more quickly. But this explanation will surely be rejected by religious people, who will seek other explanations and rationalizations.
A possible counter-argument is that intelligent people tend to be more successful than others. The lure of worldly success and materialism draws many of these intellectually gifted individuals away from God. After all, who needs God when you (apparently) are making it on your own?
However, this argument does not withstand closer scrutiny. Most of the studies outlined above describe the religious attitudes of students, who have yet to enter the working world, much less succeed in it. Some might then argue that the most intelligent students are nonetheless succeeding in school. But "success" in school (for those who may have forgotten!) is more measured in terms of popularity, sports, physical attractiveness, personality, clothes, etc. Grades are but one of many measures of success in a young person's life -- one that is increasingly becoming less important, as many social critics point out.

The simplest and most parsimonious explanation is that religion is a set of logical and factual claims, and those with the most logic and facts at their disposal are rejecting it largely on those grounds.

silly logic. Not part of Beckwith's original article (Gallup poll is 1995).