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The Parthenon (/ˈpɑːrθəˌnɒn, -nən/; Ancient Greek: Παρθενών, Parthenṓn, [par.tʰe.nɔ̌ːn]; Greek: Παρθενώνας, Parthenónas, [parθeˈnonas])[α] was the Doric temple[β] and treasury[γ] on the Athenian Acropolis. It was dedicated to the goddess Athena, the tutelary deity of Athens. It was created to house the votive statue of Athena Parthenos, and was along with the Altar of Athena Polias and the Erechtheion the focus of the state cult of Athena. Construction started circa 447 BC when the Delian League under Athenian control was at the peak of its power, it was the centre-piece of the Periclean building programme. It was completed in 438 BC, although decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. A ruin since 1687, it is now conserved as a monument and archaeological site.

History

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Main articles: Hekatompedon temple, Older Parthenon, Church of Panagia Atheniotissa, and Parthenon mosque

Architecture

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Sculpture

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Main articles: Athena Parthenos, Parthenon Frieze, Metopes of the Parthenon, and Pediments of the Parthenon

Scholarship and conservation

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Reception and influence

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Notes

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  1. ^ The first occurrence of the name Παρθενών is in Demosthenes 22.13 and 76 (Against Androtion) in the mid- 4th century. Before this, it was called simply referred to as ὁ νεώς, “the temple,” in official decrees. The form of the noun Parthenṓn, which is in the genitive plural (i.e. "of the virgins"), indicates the “maidens’ quarters” (cf. ἀνδρών, “men’s quarters,” γυναικών, “women’s quarters,” ἱππών, “horse stable,” etc.)[1], not “temple of the virgin” (which would be parthéneion or parthénion).[2]
    In fifth- and fourth-century inventory inscriptions the name Parthenon refers to only a part of the temple later so called and it is not clear whether this part is on the west side of the temple, where the treasury was, or the east side, where the cella and the statue of the goddess were[2] and cf. Herington for the argument that this “room of the parthénoi” would have belonged to female servants of the goddess in the temple’s west side.[3]
    Robertson[4] noting that “the smaller rear or west room of the Parthenon was divided into three parallel and equal chambers by two pairs of columns supporting the roof,” argues on the basis of Ovid Metamorphoses 2.708–832 that these three chambers belonged to the three Kekropids, Aglauros, Pandrosos, and Herse, and that these chambers were the “maidens’ quarters” from which the temple got its name. Ridgway[5] follows Roux[6] in taking the name of the goddess’s cella in the east side of the temple.
  2. ^ Parthenos was an epithet but not necessarily an epiclesis of Athena.[7] "There was never a cult associated with the temple. As far as we know, there was no priestess of Athena Parthenos and there was no altar in front of it where sacrifices could be performed as there normally is with a temple. Rather, the Parthenon was itself an extravagant votive offering to Athena." T.H. Carpenter, Greek Religion and Art, in A Companion to Greek Religion, Daniel Ogden (ed), Blackwell, 2007, p.405.
  3. ^ According to the first decree of Kallias of 434/3 (IG I3 52) the treasury of Athena was to be kept in the opisthodomos, where this was has been a particularly vexatious problem. Later in the century two stelai record the removal of treasure "from the opisthodomos" and "from the Parthenon" (IG II2 1378 an IG II2 1377 respectively) to the Hekatompedon. Candidates for the fifth century opisthodomos include, the Erectheion, the Archaios Neos and the Parthenon. Only later can it be argued that the treasury referred to as the opisthodomos was in the western chamber of the Temple of Athena Parthenos otherwise known as the room called the Parthenon.

References

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  1. ^ Chantraine 1933, pp. 164–165.
  2. ^ a b Fehrle 1910, pp. 197–198.
  3. ^ Herington 1955, pp. 13-14 n.1.
  4. ^ Robertson 1983, p. 273.
  5. ^ B. Ridgway, Images of Athena on the Acropolis, in Neils 1992, pp. 134–135
  6. ^ Roux 1984.
  7. ^ van Rookhuijzen 2020, p. 10.

Bibliography

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Articles

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  • Connelly, Joan Breton (1996). "Parthenon and Parthenoi: A Mythological Interpretation of the Parthenon Frieze". American Journal of Archaeology. 100 (1): 53–80. doi:10.2307/506297. JSTOR 506297. S2CID 41120274.
  • Coulton, J.J. (1974). "Understanding Doric Design: The Stylobate and Intercolumniations". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 69: 61–86. JSTOR 30103289.
  • Dinsmoor, W.B. (1954). "New Evidence for the Parthenon Frieze". American Journal of Archaeology. 58: 144–5.
  • Jenkins, I.D. (2001). "Cleaning and Controversy: The Parthenon Sculptures 1811-1939". The British Museum Occasional Papers. 146. doi:10.11588/jfk.2003.4.34262.
  • Jones, Mark Wilson (2001). "Doric Measure and Architectural Design 2: A Modular Reading of the Classical Temple". American Journal of Archaeology. 105 (4): 675–713. doi:10.2307/507412. JSTOR 507412. S2CID 191614627.
  • Linders, T. (2007). "The Location of the Opisthodomos: Evidence from the Temple of Athena Parthenos Inventories". American Journal of Archaeology. 111 (4): 777–782. doi:10.3764/aja.111.4.777. S2CID 191474061.
  • Robertson, Noel (1983). "The Riddle of the Arrhephoria at Athens". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 87: 241–288. doi:10.2307/311260. JSTOR 311260.
  • Simon, E. (1982). "Die Mittelszene im Ostfries des Parthenon". Athenische Mitteilungen. 97: 127–144.
  • Waddell, Gene (2002). "The Principal Design Methods for Greek Doric Temples and Their Modification for the Parthenon". Architectural History. 45: 1–31. doi:10.2307/1568774. JSTOR 1568774.
  • Wesenberg, B. (1995). "Panathenäische Peplosdedikation und Arrhephorie. Zur Thematik des Parthenonfrieses". JdI. 110: 149–78.

Books

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  • Balanos, Nicolas (1936). Les Monuments de L'Acropole relevement et conservation. Paris: Charles Massin et Albert Levy.
  • Barringer, Judith M.; Hurwit, Jeffery M., eds. (2005). Periklean Athens and Its Legacy: Problems and Perspectives. Texas.
  • Berger, E., ed. (1984). Der parthenon-kongress Basel referate und berichte, 4 bis 8 april 1982, 2 vols. Mainz.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Berger, E.; Gisler-Huwiler, M. (1986). Der Parthenon in Basel: Dokumentation zum Fries vol I, II. Basel.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Beschi, L. (1985). Archäische und Klassische Griechische Plastik, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Abteilung Athen, Akten des Internationalen Kolloquiums 22-25 April 1985, vol. 2. Mainz.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Boardman, J.; Finn, D. (1985). The Parthenon and Its Sculptures. Texas.
  • Bowie, Th.; Thimme, D., eds. (1971). The Carrey Drawings of the Parthenon Sculptures. Bloomington.
  • Brinkmann, Vinzenz, ed. (2016). Athen: Triumph der Bilder. Katalog zur Ausstellung im Liebieghaus Frankfurt. Michael Imhof Verlag.
  • Brommer, F. (1977). Der Parthenonfries: Katalog und Untersuchung. Mainz.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Buitron-Oliver, D., ed. (1997). The Interpretation of Architectural Sculpture in Greece and Rome. National Gallery of Art, Washington.
  • Bundgaard, J.A. (1976). Parthenon and the Mycenaean City on the Heights. National Museum of Denmark.
  • Connelly, Joan Breton (2014). The Parthenon Enigma: A New Understanding of the West's Most Iconic Building and the People Who Made It. Knopf.
  • Cosmopoulos, Michael, ed. (2004). The Parthenon and its Sculptures. Cambridge.
  • Cosmopoulos, M.B., ed. (2002). The Parthenon and Its Sculptures. Recent Advances in Their History, Iconography, and Interpretation, Papers presented at the International Conference "The Parthenon and its Sculptures in the 21st Century," held at the University of Missouri-St. Louis, April 26-28. Cambridge.
  • Delivorriás, A. (2006). H Zωοφόρος του Παρθενώνα. Athens.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Economakis, R., ed. (1994). Acropolis Restoration: The CCAM Interventions. Academy Editions.
  • Hamilakis, Yannis (2007). The Nation and Its Ruins: Antiquity, Archaeology, and National Imagination in Greece. Oxford.
  • Haselberger, Lothar, ed. (1999). Appearance and Essence: Refinements of Classical Architecture - Curvature. Pennsylvania.
  • Herington, C.J. (1955). Athena Parthenos and Athena Polias. A Study in the Religion of Periclean Athens. Manchester.
  • Höckmann, U.; Krug, A., eds. (1977). Festschrift für Frank Brommer. Mainz.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Holtzman, Bernard (2003). L'Acropole d'Athènes : Monuments, Cultes et Histoire du sanctuaire d'Athèna Polias. Paris: Picard.
  • Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2000). The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present. Cambridge.
  • Jenkins, I.D. (1994). The Parthenon Frieze. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Karaiskou, Vicky (2015). Uses and Abuses of Culture: Greece 1974-2010. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
  • Korres, M. (2001). The Stones of the Parthenon. Getty.
  • Lewis, David Correll (1994). Revealing the Parthenon's Logos Optikos: A Historical, Optical, and Perceptual Investigation of Twelve Classical Adjustments of Form, Position, and Proportion. PhD diss. Georgia Institute of Technology.
  • Mansfield, J.M. (1985). The Robe of Athena and the Panathenaic Peplos. PhD. Diss. University of California at Berkeley.
  • Mizuta, A. (2001). Iconographic and Stylistic Observations on the Parthenon Frieze. Tokyo.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Neils, J., ed. (1992). Goddess and Polis: The Panathenaic Festival in Ancient Athens. Exhib. cat. Hanover, N.H.
  • Neils, J., ed. (1996). Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon. Madison.
  • Neils, J. (2001). The Parthenon Frieze. Cambriadge.
  • Neils, J., ed. (2005). The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge.
  • Osada, T. (2016). The Parthenon Frieze. The Ritual Communication between the Goddess and the Polis. Parthenon Project Japan 2011–2014. Wien: Phoibos Verlag.
  • Tournikiotis, Panayotis, ed. (1996). The Parthenon and its Impact in Modern Times. Abrams.
  • Queyrel, François (2008). Le Parthénon: un monument dans l'histoire. Bartillat.
  • Pelling, Christopher, ed. (1997). Greek Tragedy and the Historian. Oxford.
  • Shear, J.L. (2001). Polis and Panathenaia: The History and Development of Athena΄s Festival. PhD. Diss. University of Pennsylvania.
  • Shear Jr., T. Leslie (2016). Trophies of Victory: Public Building in Periklean Athens. Princeton.
  • Simon, E. (1983). Festivals of Attica: An Archaeological Commentary. Madison.
  • Travlos, J. (1971). Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens. Thames & Hudson.
  • Whitley, James (2001). The Archaeology of Ancient Greece. Cambridge.
  • Yalouri, Eleana (2001). The Acropolis: global fame, local claim. Berg.
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