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Coordinates: 40°28′45″N 22°19′29″E / 40.479304°N 22.324777°E / 40.479304; 22.324777
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For the modern town, see Vergina.
For other cities with the same name, see Aigai.
Aegae
Αἰγαί
Silver coin from Aegae depicting a goat, reign of Amyntas I or Alexander I, c. 510–480 BC
Aegae is located in Macedonian Plain (356 BC)
Aegae
Aegae
Shown within Macedonian Plain (356 BC)
Aegae is located in Greece
Aegae
Aegae
Aegae (Greece)
Aegae is located in Europe
Aegae
Aegae
Aegae (Europe)
Alternative nameΑἰγέαι (Aegeae)
Coordinates40°28′44″N 22°19′23″E / 40.479°N 22.323°E / 40.479; 22.323
TypeSettlement
Part ofKingdom of Macedonia
History
Founded~750 BC
Abandoned~300 AD
PeriodsArchaic, Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman
Site notes
DiscoveredLéon Heuzey (1860s)
ArchaeologistsManolis Andronikos (1970s), Angeliki Kottaridi [el] (2000s)
OwnershipGreek state[a]
Management
Public accessOpen to public
Websitewww.aigai.gr
Architecture
Architectural stylesAncient Greek architecture
Official nameArchaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina)
CriteriaCultural: i, iii
Reference780
Inscription1996 (20th Session)
Area1,420.81 ha (5.4858 sq mi)
Buffer zone4,811.73 ha (18.5782 sq mi)

Aegae or Aigai (Ancient Greek: Αἰγαί) was the original capital of Macedon, an ancient kingdom in northern Greece. The site is located on the foothills of the Pierian Mountains, between the modern towns of Vergina and Palatitsia,[1][2] and overlooks the Central Macedonian Plain. William Smith places it in Emathia, probably as a consequence of Aegae's misidentification as Edessa until the 1970s. The city was abandoned in the 3rd century and was rediscovered in the 19th.[1][3]

Three major archaeological missions have been carried out at Aegae. The first was led by Léon Heuzey of the French School at Athens in the 1860s; Manolis Andronikos led excavations over a century later and made many important discoveries, including the tomb of Philip II and the Golden Larnax bearing the Vergina Sun; and Angeliki Kottaridi [el] led restoration efforts in the 2000s. Today it is the site of an archaeological site and two museums. Prior to the discoveries at Vergina, Edessa was thought to be the site of Aegae and Aegae the site of Balla.

The seat of government was later transferred to Pella, which was located on a coastal waterway of the Thermaic Gulf. The current plain of central Macedonia did not yet exist, its area being divided between Lake Ludias and marshland. The plain was created by draining and infilling in modern times. The old capital remained the "national hearth" of the Macedonian kingdom and the burial place for their kings. These were the Temenid dynasty, which descended from the Perdiccas.

The body of Alexander the Great was to have reposed at Aegae,[4] where his father Philip II of Macedon fell by the hand of Pausanias of Orestis[5] but it was taken to Memphis through the intrigues of Ptolemy I Soter.

The recently excavated palace is considered to be not only the biggest but, together with the Parthenon, one of the most significant buildings of classical Greece.[6]

In 1996, the archaeological site of Aigai was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List because of its monumental significance in Western civilization and exceptional architecture.[3]

Etymology and names

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The name Aegae is etymologically related to the word for 'goat' (Ancient Greek: αἴξ, romanized: aíx) and is translated as 'goat town' or 'bleaters'.[7] Diodorus Siculus claimed the city was so named after Perdiccas I received an instruction by the Pythia at the Oracle of Delphi to establish his city at a place where "white-horned goats rest at dawn".[8] This version, supported by Thucydides, was the 'official' founding myth in the 5th century BC.[9] In the Epitome of the Philippic History, Justin gives a different account whereby Edessa was the older name of Aegae before it was captured by Caranus of Macedon.[10] As a result, Edessa was historically thought to have been the site of Aegae.[11]

Aegae also appears in the historical record as Aegeae/Aigeai (Αἰγέαι) and Aegaea/Aigaia (Αἰγαῖα).[12]

The name is in the plural, a typical feature of ancient Greek toponyms such as Athens (Ἀθῆναι, Athenai) and Thebes (Θῆβαι, Thebai).[13] In modern Greek the name is Aiges (Αιγές, Greek pronunciation: [eˈʝes]), showing a typical first declension transition from ancient plural ending -ai to the modern -es.

Aegae as Balla or Edessa

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Ancient Aegae
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Acropolis
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Palace
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Theatre
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Sanctuary of Eucleia
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Public buildings
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Sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods
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Hellenistic house
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City walls
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Burial cluster of the Queens
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Huezey and Bella's burial clusters
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Tumuli cemetery
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Royal burial cluster C
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Great Tumulus (Burial cluster of Philip II)
Modern settlements
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Centre of Vergina today
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Koutlesh (Vergina) c. 1860s
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Palatitsia c. 1860s
See also: Balla (Pieria) and Edessa, Greece

Aegae's origins can be traced to a 3rd millennium BC settlement on the plains downhill from its current location, but relocated uphill in line with general Bronze Age trends.[14] There is evidence of burial activity at Aegae going back to the Iron Age pre-Temenid era, but the degree to which Macedonia was an urbanised society is still debated. Hatzopoulos claims that the existence of approximately 30 verified cities in the classical era and 60 in the Hellenistic period is evidence that urbanisation was commonplace.[15] Aegae is mentioned as an urban settlement by Euphorion of Chalcis and Plutarch.[16]

The early conceptualisation of the Macedonian state was that of a typical ancient Greek city-state (Polis), with Aegae as an urban centre (ἄστυ) ruling over the surrounding countryside (χώρα), no different than Athens ruling over Attica or Sparta over Lacedaemon; whether this was historically accurate or a post-rationalisation to legitimise the Argead dynasty and reinforce its Greek roots is not clear.[17] While the idea of Aegae as the urban core of the surrounding hamlets is also supported by the form of its name, which is in the plural,[18] less nucleated Greek settlements were not indicative of a less integrated, backwards, or pastoral outlook compared to more urbanised counterparts.[19]

Archelaus is associated with a distancing of the court from Aegae. He moved the administrative centre of the kingdom to Pella in 399 BC and the religious centre to Dion, while leaving certain important functions (including the royal burial grounds) at Aegae.[20] The city retained much of its religious and ceremonial significance,[21] and took on the the function of a "retreat from the hot, malaria-ridden center at Pella".[22]

The first excavation was mounted by Léon Heuzey of the French School at Athens in 1861, sponsored by Emperor Napoleon III.[23] Heuzey excavated and documented a tumulus and part of the palace, which he termed a 'propylaeum', and produced an illustrated volume of his findings in cooperation with Honoré Daumet in 1876.[24] He misidentified the site as the city that "Ptolemy calls Balla, [...] one of the inland cities of Pieria",[25] a view that prevailed until 1976.[26]

The first to convincingly suggest that Aegae was not located at the site of modern Edessa was Fanula Papazoglu in 1957, followed in 1968 by N. G. L. Hammond's claim (originaly greeted with scepticism even by Andronikos) that Aegae was located at Vergina.[27]: 610  The debate has since been settled in favour of the site at Vergina,[28] although there was opposition to this as late as the 1990s, for example by Andronikos' assistant Panagiotis Faklaris, who proposed an alternate site in Naousa.[27]: 615 

Geography

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class=notpageimage|
The Macedonian Plain c. 356 BC:[29][1]
Aegae and Pella
Other cities and towns

Aegae's territory bordered those of Beroea to the west and Aloros to the east, the Haliacmon river to the north, and the Pierian Mountains to the south, an approximate area of 62.5 km2 (24.1 sq mi).[16] Hesiod refers to the Pierian range as 'Macedonian Mount', in reference to it being the ancestral homeland of the Macedonians.[30] Although on the right bank of the Haliacmon river, it was not considered part of Pieria; Diodorus places it in Bottiaea, as does Ptolemy (though he uses the later term Emathia).[16] Its orientation relative to the mountains caused clouds to 'curl upwards' as they are brushed against the hills by Boreas, the north wind; this phenomenon, described by Theophrastus, persists to the present day.[31] Its elevation of approximately 140 m (460 ft) gave it a commanding view of the coast and the Macedonian Plain,[32] as well as a more pleasant climate than that of Pella (which, due to adjacent marshlands, was prone to malaria).[22]

Despite these advantages, the capital was moved to Pella due to the latter's more favourable economic and strategic placement on lake Loudiake and surrounding marshlands (since dried up), with a likely connection to the Thermaic Gulf by the river Loudias.[33]

The city

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Diodorus refers to Aegae as the "hearth of the Macedonian kingdom" (ἑστία),[34] and it was the launching point from which the Temenid kings conquered all surrounding territory to form the Kingdom of Macedonia.[35][36] Earlier Macedonian centres are attested in Lebaea, but Aegae was the first Macedonian city.[36] It was likely organised kata komas,[b] meaning it formed the urban core of a collection of hamlets, as is indicated by its plural name,[18] but the evidence is not conclusive.[37] Only one other settlement within the territory of Aegae is known (the hamlet of Blaganoi).[16]

Classical houses at Aegae (as in Pella) seem to follow the typical arrangement of an ancient Greek house (oikos).[38]

Not much is known about the specifics of the city's governance, but proxenoi from Aegae to Delphi, Histiaia, and Magnesia on the Maeander are attested.[16]

Economy

[edit]

The unchecked expansion of the southern necropolis on land that could otherwise be used for agriculture suggests that Aegae was self-sufficient in agricultural production (as well as viticulture and arboriculture) but that it likely wasn't the city's main economic activity;[13] Timber, used for the construction of ships such as triremes, was likely the city's main export, but it never became a major centre of commerce due to the enduring influence of traditional economic models centred around land ownership.[13] Craftsmen and artists (foreign and local) must have been active in the city in order to satisfy its needs,[39] but Aegae is considered to have been prosperous enough as a royal city that it likely functioned as a centre for the export of prestigious products and services, rather than crafts.[13] Slavery does not seem to have played a big role in the economy, with all but the wealthiest of the city's inhabitants tending to their fields themselves.[39] Women's role in the economy was largely relegated to the satisfaction of household needs, such as the hand spinning of wool and the production of clothes and bedding.[40] The city's agora was the heart of economic activity, and such niche imports as Athenian olive oil produced by winners of the Panathenaic Games have been found at Aegae.[41]

Civics and culture

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Orchestra of the theatre as it appeared in 1990

The urban fabric of Aegae represents a pivotal moment of transition between the classical Greek city-state and the imperial centres of the Hellenistic and Roman periods.[3] Civic and religious public buildings are concentrated on its western side.[37] It was not built in accordance with an urban plan, as was typical of later Greek cities (including Pella), but architectural interventions like the sanctuary of Eucleia indicate some attempts to spatially organise the public realm;[18] the Sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods (Cybele) may have been particularly influential in the organisation of the urban environment.[37] The close proximity of the palace and the theatre, constituting one composition, seems to indicate that they played a major role in the public realm in conjuncture with the agora and other nearby public buildings.[42] The composition also displays a clear ideological dimension, tying the political and religious authority of the Macedonian monarch with the centre of high art and culture.[43]

Under Philip II, Aegae was endowed with columniated temples and a theatre, architectural hallmarks of a typical Greek city.[44] The theatre is notable for having the largest orchestra of any known Greek theatre at 28.5 m (94 ft) in diameter, far bigger than what is operationally required for a theatre of an otherwise modest scale;[22] this indicates that the theatre was used for feasts and celebrations as well as dramatic performances.[22] One of the most famous assassinations took place there, as Philip II was stabbed in the theatre by his bodyguard and former lover Pausanias of Orestis, during the wedding celebrations of his daughter Cleopatra in the summer of 336 BC.[45] Euripides wrote the play Archelaus (and likely The Bacchae) while in Aegae under the patronage of Archelaus,[46] but it is not known if the city's first theatre was that built by Philip II or whether that had replaced an older structure.

A large structure discovered beyond the city walls under the modern village of Vergina has been hypothesised to be the city's gymnasium.[47]

Religion

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Ruins of the sanctuary of Eucleia

Aegae was host to regular games and festivals in honour of Zeus (the city's main deity),[16] but they were largely eclipsed in importance by those at the sanctuary of Dion in later years; even so, the city remained a ceremonial and religious centre of the kingdom.[48] The cult of Heracles Patroös was equal in importance to that of Zeus,[16] as Heracles was considered the ancestor of the royal house.[49] The tholos shrine within Aegae palace is dedicated to him, as is evidenced from epigraphic remains.[50]

The seasons and local geography significantly affected religious practices in the city. The festivals (as at Dion) were correlated with transhumance and seasonal migrations, as the city was on the route to the Pierian pasturelands,[51] while the association of the Muses with Pieria made them of special importance to the city.[51][52] Other known sanctuaries included those of the Mother of the Gods (Cybele) and Eucleia (likely as an epithet of Artemis).[53] The sanctuary of Eucleia consisted of a Doric temple, two stoas, and a peristyle,[47] and was later expanded with a second, smaller temple.[54]

Palace

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The palace before restoration works in the 2020s.

The most important building discovered is the monumental palace (Ancient Greek: Βασιλεία, romanized: Basileia). It has a footprint of over 8,300 m2 (89,000 sq ft),[55] making it one of the largest buildings to ever be constructed in the Greek world.[22] Wolfram Hoepfner went so far as to call it a building that "occupies a place in Greek architecture comparable to the Parthenon".[56] Much of the building's architectural detailing was radical, in particular the first-known use of engaged columns flanking a freestanding pier.[57] It has elements in both the Doric and Ionic orders,[57] and many of the design elements (such as the entablatures) make extensive use of the golden ratio.[58] As Angeliki Kottaridi, who led the restoration efforts, explains:

"What is certain is that the court of Philip II was a fertile atmosphere both for thinkers and artists. Not only was the realistic portrait born there. It was also the setting for the archetypal building, designed to be the intellectual manifesto of the "ideal state," a tangible expression of enlightened leadership."[59]

It was first discovered by Heuzey in the 1860s, but in the following decades much of the excavated material was removed.[60]

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The Palace of Aegae as surveyed by Heuzey and Daumet, c. 1860s (looking East)
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Church of the Holy Trinity
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'Propylaeum' (ceremonial Palace entrance)
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Patio retaining wall

Located on a plateau directly below the acropolis, this building of two or perhaps three stories is centred on a large open courtyard flanked by Doric colonnades. On the north side was a large gallery with a view of the stage of the neighbouring theatre and the whole Macedonian plain. The palace was sumptuously decorated, with mosaic floors, painted plastered walls, and fine relief tiles. The masonry and architectural members were covered with high-quality marble stucco. Excavations have dated its construction to the reign of Philip II,[61] even though he also had a palace in the capital, Pella. It has been suggested that the building was designed by the architect Pytheos of Priene, known for his work on the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and for his views on urban planning and architectural proportions. The theatre, also from the second half of the 4th century BC, was closely associated with the palace.

The piers with engaged columns ("Great Ionic order"), as surveyed by Heuzey and Daumet, c. 1860s.

Nearly 30 large columns that surrounded the palace's main peristyle have been reconstructed, some towering to a height of 25 ft.[62] The frieze on the peristyle's southern section has also been reconstructed.[63] Over 5,000 square feet of mosaics depicting a range of scenes, including the ravishing of Europa and motifs from nature have been carefully conserved.

The site of the palace lost significance for Macedonian Royalty after it (and the rest of the city) was burned down in 168 BCE after the Battle of Pydna, despite the city remaining for another three centuries.[64] A landslide in the first century AD preserved what was left of the ruins, leaving about 3–4 metres of soil on top of the monument, and thereafter the ruins formed the most important source of stone for nearby settlements.[64] Stone from the palace was also used to build the village of Vergina in the 1920s.[65]

The Palace of Aigai reopened to the public in January 2024 after an extensive 16 year restoration.[66]

Necropoleis

[edit]
Further information: Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)

In 1977, Greek archaeologist Manolis Andronikos started excavating the Great Tumulus at Aegae[67] and found that two of the four tombs in the tumulus were undisturbed since antiquity. Moreover, these two, and particularly Tomb II, contained fabulous treasures and objects of great quality and sophistication.[68] Alexander the Great planned to add to the royal necropolis a funerary monument "as large as the Pyramids in Egypt" to honour his father, but this was never built.[69] Many of the tombs in the royal necropolis were plundered by Gallic mercenaries serving under Pyrrhus of Epirus, when he captured the city in 274 BC.[70]

Although there was much debate for some years,[71][72] Tomb II has been shown to be that of Philip II as indicated by many features,[73] including the greaves, one of which was shaped consistently to fit a leg with a misaligned tibia (Philip II was recorded as having broken his tibia). Also, the remains of the skull show damage to the right eye caused by the penetration of an object (historically recorded to be an arrow).[74]

The most recent research gives further evidence that Tomb II contains the remains of Philip II.[75]

The tombs include the first known Greek use of barrel vaults, dated to c. 360 BC.[76]

  • Great Tumulus of Aegae
    Great Tumulus of Aegae
  • The tomb of Philip II of Macedon at the Museum of the Royal Tombs in Vergina
    The tomb of Philip II of Macedon at the Museum of the Royal Tombs in Vergina
  • The golden larnax and the golden grave crown of Philip
    The golden larnax and the golden grave crown of Philip
  • Silver urn with oak wreath in gold
    Silver urn with oak wreath in gold

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ According to Greek Law 3028/2002:
    • All archaeological discoveries in Greece dated pre-1453, both movable and immovable, are property of the State outright.
  2. ^ κ. κώμας κατοικημένοι, 'in separate villages'. See definition B.II of κατά in Liddell and Scott

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b c Lund University. Digital Atlas of the Roman Empire.
  2. ^ Richard Talbert, ed. (2000). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton University Press. p. 50, and directory notes accompanying. ISBN 978-0-691-03169-9.
  3. ^ a b c "Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina)". UNESCO World Heritage Convention. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
  4. ^ Pausanias (1918). "6.3". Description of Greece. Vol. 1. Translated by W. H. S. Jones; H. A. Ormerod. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press; William Heinemann – via Perseus Digital Library.
  5. ^ Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historica (Historical Library). Vol. 16.91, 92.
  6. ^ "Αιγές (Βεργίνα) | Museum of Royal Tombs of Aigai -Vergina". www.aigai.gr. Archived from the original on 2018-12-29. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  7. ^ Hammond (1989), p. 4.
  8. ^ Diodorus Siculus. "16.1". Bibliotheca historica [The Library of History]. Vol. VII. Retrieved 1 January 2025 – via Vol. III of the Loeb Classical Library (1939 ed.), reproduced by LacusCurtius (University of Chicago).
  9. ^ Roisman et al., p. 90.
  10. ^ Roisman et al., pp. 90–91.
  11. ^ Smith et al.
  12. ^ Borza, Eugene N.; et al. (DARMC, Brady Kiesling, Sean Gillies, Johan Åhlfeldt, Jeffrey Becker, Tom Elliott, Catherine Bouras, and R. Talbert). "Places: 491512 (Aigeai)". Pleiades. Archived from the original on 1 January 2025. Retrieved 1 January 2025.
  13. ^ a b c d Kottaridi (2013), p. 53.
  14. ^ Kottaridi (2012b).
  15. ^ Roisman et al., p. 479.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Hatzopoulos et al. (2004), pp. 798–799, "529. Aigeai".
  17. ^ Hatzopoulos (2011), p. 236.
  18. ^ a b c Kottaridi (2011a), pp. 299–300.
  19. ^ Haggis, Donald C. (2013). "Social Organisation and Aggregated Settlement Structure in an Archaic Greek City on Crete (ca. 600BC)". In Birch, Jennifer (ed.). From Prehistoric Villages to Cities – Settlement Aggregation and Community Transformation. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-415-83661-6.
  20. ^ Fox et al., p. 92.
  21. ^ Petsas.
  22. ^ a b c d e Borza (2010).
  23. ^ Fox et al., p. 36.
  24. ^ Heuzey et al. (Vol. II).
  25. ^ Heuzey et al. (Vol. I), p. 181.
  26. ^ Andronikos, Manolis (1976). "Ανασκαφή στη Μεγάλη Τούμπα της Βεργίνας" [Excavation at the Great Tumulus of Vergina]. Αρχαιολογικά Ανάλεκτα Αθηνών [Archaeological Annals of Athens]. 9: 127–129.
  27. ^ a b Faklaris, Panayiotis B. (October 1994). "Aegae: Determining the Site of the First Capital of the Macedonians". American Journal of Archaeology. 98 (4): 609–618. doi:10.2307/506548. JSTOR 506548. Retrieved 3 January 2025 – via JSTOR.
  28. ^ Bartsiokas, Antonis; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Brandmeir, Nicholas (December 2023). "The identification of the Royal Tombs in the Great Tumulus at Vergina, Macedonia, Greece: A comprehensive review". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 52. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104279. Retrieved 3 January 2025.
  29. ^ Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1972). A History of Macedonia. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 141 – via the Internet Archive.
  30. ^ Kottaridi (2013), p. 41.
  31. ^ Fox et al., p. 33.
  32. ^ Hammond (2012).
  33. ^ Fox et al., p. 45.
  34. ^ Diodorus Siculus. "12.1". Bibliotheca historica [The Library of History]. Vol. XXII. Retrieved 8 January 2025 – via Vol. XI of the Loeb Classical Library (1957 ed.), reproduced by LacusCurtius (University of Chicago). Ὅτι τὰς Αἰγέας διαρπάσας ὁ Πύρρος, ἥτις ἦν ἑστία τῆς Μακεδονικῆς βασιλείας
  35. ^ Hammond (1989), pp. 4–12.
  36. ^ a b Kottaridi (2013), pp. 46–47.
  37. ^ a b c Drougou (2011), pp. 250–251.
  38. ^ Kottaridi (2013), pp. 118–119.
  39. ^ a b Kottaridi (2013), p. 61.
  40. ^ Kottaridi (2013), p. 84.
  41. ^ Kottaridi (2013), p. 90.
  42. ^ "Αρχαίο θέατρο Αιγών" [Ancient Theatre of Aegae]. www.odysseus.culture.gr (in Greek). Ministry of Culture. 2012. Archived from the original on 8 August 2024. Retrieved 3 January 2025.
  43. ^ Kottaridi (2012c).
  44. ^ Hatzopoulos (2011), p. 66.
  45. ^ Roisman et al., p. 182.
  46. ^ Hammond (1989), p. 98.
  47. ^ a b Kottaridi (2013), p. 222.
  48. ^ Roisman et al., p. 156.
  49. ^ Hammond (1989), p. 23.
  50. ^ Kottaridi (2011a), p. 326.
  51. ^ a b Hammond (1989), p. 6.
  52. ^ Hammond (1989), p. 68.
  53. ^ Hammond (1989), p. 33.
  54. ^ Palagia, Olga (2016). "Visualising the gods in Macedonia: from Philip II to Perseus". Pharos. 22: 73–98.
  55. ^ Hoepfner, p. 9.
  56. ^ Hoepfner, p. 9, "Dieses ausgewogene und höchst eindrucksvolle Ensemble ist sehr wahrscheinlich der älteste königliche Palast der hellenistischen bzw. der spätklassischen Zeit und nimmt einen dem Parthenon vergleichbaren Platz in der griechischen Architektur ein." [This balanced and highly impressive ensemble is very likely the oldest royal palace of the Hellenistic or late classical period and occupies a place in Greek architecture comparable to the Parthenon.].
  57. ^ a b Kottaridi (2011a), pp. 320–322.
  58. ^ Kottaridi (2011a), p. 332.
  59. ^ Kottaridi (2011a), p. 333.
  60. ^ Kottaridi (2011a), pp. 311.
  61. ^ "Αιγές (Βεργίνα) – Museum of Royal Tombs of Aigai -Vergina". aigai.gr. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
  62. ^ Mandal, Dattatreya (28 February 2018). "Philip II's massive palace at Aigai to be opened for the public in May". Realm of History. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  63. ^ "Philip II's palace at Aigai to open to the public in May". The Greek Observer. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  64. ^ a b Kottaridi (2011a), pp. 305–306.
  65. ^ Kottaridi (2013), pp. 19–20.
  66. ^ Kantouris, Derek Gatopoulos and Costas (2024-01-06). "Greece unveils palace where Alexander the Great became king". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2024-01-31.
  67. ^ "Αιγές (Βεργίνα) | Museum of Royal Tombs of Aigai -Vergina". aigai.gr. Archived from the original on 2018-12-29. Retrieved 2018-10-25.
  68. ^ National Geographic article outlining recent archaeological examinations of Tomb II.
  69. ^ Hammond (1989), p. 29.
  70. ^ Hammond (1989), p. 30.
  71. ^ Hatzopoulos B. Miltiades, The Burial of the Dead (at Vergina) or The Unending Controversy on the Identity of the Occupant of Tomb II. Tekmiria, vol. 9 (2008) Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine
  72. ^ Antonis Bartsiokas; et al. (July 20, 2015). "The lameness of King Philip II and Royal Tomb I at Vergina, Macedonia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (32): 9844–48. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.9844B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1510906112. PMC 4538655. PMID 26195763.
  73. ^ Musgrave, Jonathan; Prag, A. J. N. W.; Neave, Richard; Fox, Robin Lane; White, Hugh (8 August 2010). "The Occupants of Tomb II at Vergina. Why Arrhidaios and Eurydice must be excluded". International Journal of Medical Sciences. 7 (6): s1 – s15. Retrieved 2018-10-25.
  74. ^ See John Prag and Richard Neave's report in Making Faces: Using Forensic and Archaeological Evidence, published for the Trustees of the British Museum by the British Museum Press, London: 1997
  75. ^ New Finds from the Cremains in Tomb II at Aegae Point to Philip II and a Scythian Princess, T. G. Antikas* and L. K. Wynn-Antikas, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology
  76. ^ Arafat.

Bibliography

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Books

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  • Kottaridi, Angeliki (2011). Heracles to Alexander the Great: Treasures from the Royal Capital of Macedon, a Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy. Oxford: Ashmolean Museum. ISBN 978-1854442543.

Journals

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Reference Works

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Websites

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Videography

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Further Reading

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Attribution

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Media related to Aigai (Vergina) at Wikimedia Commons

40°28′45″N 22°19′29″E / 40.479304°N 22.324777°E / 40.479304; 22.324777

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