Jump to content

User:Tlevit/Attenuated vaccines

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An attenuated vaccine (or a live attenuated vaccine) is a vaccine created by reducing the virulence of a pathogen, but still keeping it viable (or "live").[1] Attenuation takes an infectious agent and alters it so that it becomes harmless or less virulent.[2] These vaccines contrast to those produced by "killing" the virus (inactivated vaccine).

Attenuated vaccines stimulate a strong and effective immune response that is long-lasting.[3] In comparison to inactivated vaccines, attenuated vaccines produce a strong immune response and have a quick immunity onset.[4][5][6] However, they may not be safe for use in immunocompromised and pregnant individuals.[7] Common examples of live attenuated vaccines are measles, mumps, rubella, yellow fever, and influenza vaccines.[8]

Mechanism section: These vaccines function by encouraging the body to create antibodies and memory immune cells in response to the specific pathogen which the vaccine protects against. [9]

Talk Page Introduction

[edit]

Hello everyone, we are focusing on this article as a WikiEducation project. We are planning to increase the quality of this article by improving the lead section, adding missing references, updating older information/sources, as well as re-arranging and possibly adding new sections (e.g., History, Vaccine Safety). The sections we are planning to improve are “development” and “administration”, and we also plan to combine the “advantages” and disadvantages” sections into one. Does anyone have any questions, concerns, or ideas they would like to bring up? We would appreciate any help and feedback, and are excited to work with all of you on improving this article! ~~~~

History

[edit]

Potential sources:

https://link-springer-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-45024-6_1#Sec73

https://www-sciencedirect-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/science/article/pii/S0042682215001725


The history of vaccine development started with the creation of the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner in the late 18th century.[10] Jenner discovered that inoculating a human with an animal pox virus would grant immunity against smallpox, a disease considered to be one of the most devastating in human history.[11][12] Although the original smallpox vaccine is sometimes considered to be an attenuated vaccine due to it's live nature, it was not strictly-speaking attenuated since it was not derived directly from smallpox. Instead, it was based on the related and milder cowpox disease.[13][14] The discovery that diseases could be artificially attenuated came in the late 19th century when Louis Pasteur was able to derive an attenuated strain of chicken cholera.[13] Pasteur applied this knowledge to develop an attenuated anthrax vaccine and demonstrating it's effectiveness in a public experiment.[15] The first rabies vaccine was subsequently produced by Pasteur and Emile Roux by growing the virus in rabbits and drying the affected nervous tissue.[15] The technique of cultivating a virus repeatedly in artificial media and isolating less virulent strains was pioneered in the early 20th century by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin who developed an attenuated tuberculosis vaccine called the BCG vaccine.[10] This technique was later used by several teams when developing the vaccine for yellow fever, first by Sellards and Laigret, and then by Theiler and Smith.[10][13][16] The vaccine developed by Theiler and Smith proved to be hugely successful and helped establish recommended practices and regulations for many other vaccines. These include the growth of viruses in primary tissue culture (e.g., chick embryos), as opposed to animals, and the use of the seed stock system which uses the original attenuated viruses as opposed to derived viruses (done to reduce variance in vaccine development and decrease the chance of adverse effects).[13][16] The middle of the 20th century saw the work of many prominent virologists including Sabin, Hilleman, and Enders, and the introduction of several successful attenuated vaccines, such as those against polio, measles, mumps, and rubella.[17][18][19][20]

Development

[edit]

Viruses may be attenuated via passage of the virus through a foreign host, such as:[21][22]

The initial virus population is applied to a foreign host. Through natural genetic variability or induced mutation, a small percent of the viral particles should have the capacity to infect the new host.[22][23] These strains will continue to evolve within the new host and the virus will gradually lose its efficacy in the original due to lack of selection pressure.[22][23] This process is known as "passage" in which the virus becomes so well adapted to the foreign host that it is no longer harmful to the vaccinated subject.[23] This makes it easier for the host's immune system to eliminate the agent and create the immunological memory cells which will likely protect the patient if they are infected with a similar version of the virus in "the wild".[23]

Administration

[edit]

Paragraph moved from previous administration:

Live attenuated vaccines are administered via a viral transport media containing the relevant viral particles. The media may be given orally, injected via a hypodermic needle or by inhalation with the method often dependent upon the source phage's virulence factors.

Attenuated vaccines can be administered in a variety of ways:

There is also a transcutaneous vaccine which is administered via a patch being developed for a live attenuated measles vaccine currently in development[26]. (should this be included?)

question: should we only link a page once in the article or every time we mention it? (e.g. I link MMR vaccine here and it's also linked in the examples)

Administration

[edit]

Original:

Live attenuated vaccines are administered via a viral transport media containing the relevant viral particles. The media may be given orally, injected via a hypodermic needle or by inhalation with the method often dependent upon the source phage's virulence factors.

A vaccine works by encouraging the creation of memory B and T cells specific for an antigen associated with the pathogen in question. Accordingly, a vaccine is only effective for as long as the body maintains a population of these cells. Non-Attenuated Vaccines typically require boosters to resubmit the antigen to these memory leukocytes, in a sense, this alerts the body that the pathogen is still a threat and that the population of specific memory leukocytes should be maintained rather than allowing them to die-off. This is much less of a concern for attenuated vaccines because the virus will reproduce, albeit at a severely reduced rate, resulting in constant antigen presence.

Updated:

Live attenuated vaccines are administered via a viral transport media containing the relevant viral particles. The media may be given orally, injected via a hypodermic needle or by inhalation with the method often dependent upon the source phage's virulence factors.

Vaccines function by encouraging the creation of cells, such as CD8+ and CD4+ T lymphocytes, or molecules, such as antibodies, that are specific to the pathogen[9]. The cells and molecules function in various ways to either prevent or reduce infection, such as by killing infected cells or producing interleukins[9]. The specific effectors that are evoked differ based on the vaccine[9]. In particular, live attenuated vaccines tend to induce the production of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes and T-dependent antibody responses[9]. Accordingly, a vaccine is only effective for as long as the body maintains a population of these cells [citation needed]. Live attenuated vaccines are unique in their ability to induce long-term, possibly lifelong, immunity without requiring re-exposure to the pathogen through multiple vaccine doses[23][9]. Live attenuated vaccines are also unique in their ability to induce cellular immune responses, which do not rely solely on antibodies but also involve immune cells such as cytotoxic T cells or macrophages[23].

Suggestion for a sentence to add in mechanisms (need to paraphrase, from WHO Vaccine Safety module): Attenuated vaccines "provide continual antigenic stimulation giving sufficient time for memory cell production"

Advantages and Disadvantages

[edit]

Original:

[edit]

Advantages

[edit]
  • Activates all phases of the immune system (for instance IgA local antibodies are produced)[27]
  • Provides more durable immunity; boosters are required less frequently[28] [citation needed]
  • Low cost [29]
  • Quick immunity [citation needed]
  • Some are easy to transport and administer (for instance OPV for polio can be taken orally, rather than requiring a sterile injection by a trained healthworker, as the inactivated form IPV does)[30]
  • Attenuated vaccines can have strong beneficial non-specific effects. That is effects which go beyond the specific protective effects against the targeted diseases.

Disadvantages

[edit]
  • In extremely rare cases, natural mutations can cause a reversion to virulence.In this case, the virus can revert to wild type or develop into an entirely new strain.
  • Live vaccines are not usually recommended for immunocompromised patients due to the risk of potentially severe complications.
  • Live strains typically require advanced maintenance, such as refrigeration and fresh media, making transport to remote areas difficult and costly.

Updated:

[edit]

Potential sources:

[edit]

https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/downloads/prinvac.pdf

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25864107/

https://vaccine-safety-training.org/live-attenuated-vaccines.html

Advantages

[edit]

Disadvantages

[edit]
  • In extremely rare cases natural mutations can cause a virus to revert to its wild-type form or mutate to a new strain, potentially resulting in the new virus being infectious, pathogenic, or dangerous.[31][36]
  • Often not recommended for immunocompromised patients due to the risk of potentially severe complications.[31][37][38]
  • Live strains typically require advanced maintenance, such as refrigeration and fresh media, making transport to remote areas difficult and costly.[31][39]

Safety

[edit]

Live-attenuated vaccines stimulate a strong and effective immune response that is long-lasting.[40] Given pathogens are attenuated, it is extremely rare for pathogens to revert to their pathogenic form and subsequently cause disease.[41] Additionally, within the five WHO-recommended live attenuated vaccines (tuberculosis, polio, measles, rotavirus, and yellow fever) severe adverse reactions are extremely rare.[41] However, similar to any medication or procedure, no vaccine can be 100% safe or effective.[42]

Individuals with compromised immune systems (e.g., HIV-infection, chemotherapy, combined immunodeficiencies) typically should not receive live-attenuated vaccines as they may not be able to produce an adequate and safe immune response.[40][41][43][44] Household contacts of immunodeficient individuals are still able to receive most attenuated vaccines since there is no increased risk of infection transmission, with the exception being the oral polio vaccine.[44]

As precaution, live-attenuated vaccines are not typically administered during pregnancy.[41][45] This is due to the risk of transmission of virus between mother and fetus.[45] In particular, the varicella and yellow fever vaccines have been shown to have adverse effects on fetuses and nursing babies.[45]

Some live attenuated vaccines have additional common, mild adverse effects due to their administration route.[45] For example, the live attenuated influenza vaccine is given nasally and is associated with nasal congestion.[45]

Compared to inactivated vaccines, live-attenuated vaccines are more prone to immunization errors as they must be kept under strict conditions during the cold chain and carefully prepared (e.g., during reconstitution).[40][41][43]


Potential sources:

https://www.who.int/vaccine_safety/initiative/tech_support/Part-2.pdf

https://vaccine-safety-training.org/live-attenuated-vaccines.html

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/acip/safety-vaccines.htm

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28824613/

https://www-sciencedirect-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/attenuated-vaccine (List of book chapters, one discusses advantages/disadvantages as well)

Examples

[edit]

Vaccines currently in-use

[edit]

Bacterial vaccines

[edit]

Viral vaccines

[edit]

Vaccines currently in development

[edit]

Bacterial vaccines

[edit]

Viral vaccines

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Badgett, Marty R.; Auer, Alexandra; Carmichael, Leland E.; Parrish, Colin R.; Bull, James J. (2002-10). "Evolutionary Dynamics of Viral Attenuation". Journal of Virology. 76 (20): 10524–10529. doi:10.1128/JVI.76.20.10524-10529.2002. ISSN 0022-538X. PMID 12239331. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ^ Pulendran, Bali; Ahmed, Rafi (June 2011). "Immunological mechanisms of vaccination". Nature Immunology. 12 (6): 509–517. ISSN 1529-2908. PMC 3253344. PMID 21739679.
  3. ^ "Vaccine Types | Vaccines". www.vaccines.gov. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  4. ^ a b c Gil, Carmen; Latasa, Cristina; García-Ona, Enrique; Lázaro, Isidro; Labairu, Javier; Echeverz, Maite; Burgui, Saioa; García, Begoña; Lasa, Iñigo; Solano, Cristina (2020). "A DIVA vaccine strain lacking RpoS and the secondary messenger c-di-GMP for protection against salmonellosis in pigs". Veterinary Research. 51. doi:10.1186/s13567-019-0730-3. ISSN 0928-4249. PMC 6954585. PMID 31924274.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ a b c Tretyakova, Irina; Lukashevich, Igor S.; Glass, Pamela; Wang, Eryu; Weaver, Scott; Pushko, Peter (2013-02-04). "Novel Vaccine against Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Combines Advantages of DNA Immunization and a Live Attenuated Vaccine". Vaccine. 31 (7): 1019–1025. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.12.050. ISSN 0264-410X. PMC 3556218. PMID 23287629.
  6. ^ a b c Zou, Jing; Xie, Xuping; Luo, Huanle; Shan, Chao; Muruato, Antonio E.; Weaver, Scott C.; Wang, Tian; Shi, Pei-Yong (2018-09-07). "A single-dose plasmid-launched live-attenuated Zika vaccine induces protective immunity". EBioMedicine. 36: 92–102. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.08.056. ISSN 2352-3964. PMC 6197676. PMID 30201444.
  7. ^ Bhattacharya, J. K. Sinha & S. A Text Book of Immunology. Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-81-89781-09-5.
  8. ^ "Vaccine Types | Vaccines". www.vaccines.gov. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Plotkin's vaccines. Plotkin, Stanley A., 1932-, Orenstein, Walter A.,, Offit, Paul A., (Seventh edition ed.). Philadelphia, PA. ISBN 978-0-323-39302-7. OCLC 989157433. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  10. ^ a b c Plotkin, Stanley (2014-08-26). "History of vaccination". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (34): 12283–12287. doi:10.1073/pnas.1400472111. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4151719. PMID 25136134.
  11. ^ Eyler, John M. (October 2003). "Smallpox in history: the birth, death, and impact of a dread disease". Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 142 (4): 216–220. doi:10.1016/s0022-2143(03)00102-1. ISSN 0022-2143.
  12. ^ Thèves, Catherine; Crubézy, Eric; Biagini, Philippe (2016-09-15), Drancourt; Raoult (eds.), "History of Smallpox and Its Spread in Human Populations", Paleomicrobiology of Humans, American Society of Microbiology, pp. 161–172, doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.poh-0004-2014, ISBN 978-1-55581-916-3, retrieved 2020-11-14
  13. ^ a b c d Galinski, Mark S.; Sra, Kuldip; Haynes, John I.; Naspinski, Jennifer (2015), Nunnally, Brian K.; Turula, Vincent E.; Sitrin, Robert D. (eds.), "Live Attenuated Viral Vaccines", Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 1–44, doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45024-6_1, ISBN 978-3-662-45024-6, retrieved 2020-11-14
  14. ^ "Live attenuated vaccines: Historical successes and current challenges". Virology. 479–480: 379–392. 2015-05-01. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2015.03.032. ISSN 0042-6822.
  15. ^ a b Schwartz, M. (7 July 2008). "The life and works of Louis Pasteur". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 91 (4): 597–601. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01495.x. ISSN 1364-5072. PMID 11576293.
  16. ^ a b Frierson, J. Gordon (June 2010). "The Yellow Fever Vaccine: A History". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 83 (2): 77–85. ISSN 0044-0086. PMC 2892770. PMID 20589188.
  17. ^ Shampo, Marc A.; Kyle, Robert A.; Steensma, David P. (July 2011). "Albert Sabin—Conqueror of Poliomyelitis". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 86 (7): e44. doi:10.4065/mcp.2011.0345. ISSN 0025-6196. PMC 3127575. PMID 21719614.
  18. ^ Newman, Laura (2005-04-30). "Maurice Hilleman". BMJ : British Medical Journal. 330 (7498): 1028. ISSN 0959-8138.
  19. ^ Katz, S. L. (2009). "John F. Enders and measles virus vaccine--a reminiscence". Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 329: 3–11. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70523-9_1. ISSN 0070-217X. PMID 19198559.
  20. ^ Plotkin, Stanley A. (2006-11-01). "The History of Rubella and Rubella Vaccination Leading to Elimination". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 43 (Supplement_3): S164–S168. doi:10.1086/505950. ISSN 1058-4838.
  21. ^ Jordan, Ingo; Sandig, Volker (2014-04-11). "Matrix and Backstage: Cellular Substrates for Viral Vaccines". Viruses. 6 (4): 1672–1700. doi:10.3390/v6041672. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 4014716. PMID 24732259.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  22. ^ a b c Nunnally, Brian K.; Turula, Vincent E.; Sitrin, Robert D., eds. (2015). "Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control". doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45024-6. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  23. ^ a b c d e f Hanley, Kathryn A. (December 2011). "The double-edged sword: How evolution can make or break a live-attenuated virus vaccine". Evolution. 4 (4): 635–643. doi:10.1007/s12052-011-0365-y. ISSN 1936-6426. PMC 3314307. PMID 22468165.
  24. ^ a b c d Herzog, Christian (2014). "Influence of parenteral administration routes and additional factors on vaccine safety and immunogenicity: a review of recent literature". Expert Review of Vaccines. 13 (3): 399–415. doi:10.1586/14760584.2014.883285. ISSN 1476-0584.
  25. ^ Gasparini, R.; Amicizia, D.; Lai, P. L.; Panatto, D. (2011). "Live attenuated influenza vaccine--a review". Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene. 52 (3): 95–101. ISSN 1121-2233. PMID 22010534.
  26. ^ a b Morrow, W. John W. (2012). Vaccinology : Principles and Practice. Sheikh, Nadeem A., Schmidt, Clint S., Davies, D. Huw. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-34533-7. OCLC 795120561.
  27. ^ Pasetti, Marcela F; Simon, Jakub K.; Sztein, Marcelo B.; Levine, Myron M. (9 March 2012). "Immunology of Gut Mucosal Vaccines". Immunological Reviews. 239 (1): 125–148. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00970.x. PMC 3298192. PMID 21198669.
  28. ^ "Vaccine Types | Vaccines.gov". www.vaccines.gov. Retrieved 2019-02-25.
  29. ^ Minor, Philip D. (2015-05-01). "Live attenuated vaccines: Historical successes and current challenges". Virology. 60th Anniversary Issue. 479–480: 379–392. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2015.03.032. ISSN 0042-6822. PMID 25864107.
  30. ^ "Polio and the Introduction of IPV for health workers (September 2014)" (PDF). WHO.int. World Health Organization. 1 September 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g Yadav, Dinesh K.; Yadav, Neelam; Khurana, Satyendra Mohan Paul (2014), "Vaccines", Animal Biotechnology, Elsevier, pp. 491–508, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-416002-6.00026-2, ISBN 978-0-12-416002-6, retrieved 2020-11-09
  32. ^ a b c d Vetter, Volker; Denizer, Gülhan; Friedland, Leonard R.; Krishnan, Jyothsna; Shapiro, Marla (2018-02-17). "Understanding modern-day vaccines: what you need to know". Annals of Medicine. 50 (2): 110–120. doi:10.1080/07853890.2017.1407035. ISSN 0785-3890. PMID 29172780.
  33. ^ Minor, Philip D. (2015-05). "Live attenuated vaccines: Historical successes and current challenges". Virology. 479–480: 379–392. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2015.03.032. ISSN 1096-0341. PMID 25864107. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  34. ^ Mak, Tak W.; Saunders, Mary E. (2006-01-01), Mak, Tak W.; Saunders, Mary E. (eds.), "23 - Vaccines and Clinical Immunization", The Immune Response, Burlington: Academic Press, pp. 695–749, ISBN 978-0-12-088451-3, retrieved 2020-11-14
  35. ^ Benn, Christine S.; Netea, Mihai G.; Selin, Liisa K.; Aaby, Peter (September 2013). "A small jab – a big effect: nonspecific immunomodulation by vaccines". Trends in Immunology. 34 (9): 431–439. doi:10.1016/j.it.2013.04.004. PMID 23680130.
  36. ^ Shimizu H, Thorley B, Paladin FJ, et al. (December 2004). "Circulation of type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus in the Philippines in 2001". J. Virol. 78 (24): 13512–21. doi:10.1128/JVI.78.24.13512-13521.2004. PMC 533948. PMID 15564462.
  37. ^ Kroger, Andrew T.; Ciro V. Sumaya; Larry K. Pickering; William L. Atkinson (2011-01-28). "General Recommendations on Immunization: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
  38. ^ Cheuk, Daniel KL; Chiang, Alan KS; Lee, Tsz Leung; Chan, Godfrey CF; Ha, Shau Yin (2011-03-16). "Vaccines for prophylaxis of viral infections in patients with hematological malignancies". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006505.pub2. ISSN 1465-1858.
  39. ^ Levine, Myron M. (2011-12-30). ""IDEAL" vaccines for resource poor settings". Vaccine. Smallpox Eradication after 30 Years: Lessons, Legacies and Innovations. 29: D116–D125. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.090. ISSN 0264-410X.
  40. ^ a b c "Vaccine Types | Vaccines". www.vaccines.gov. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  41. ^ a b c d e "MODULE 2 – Live attenuated vaccines (LAV) - WHO Vaccine Safety Basics". vaccine-safety-training.org. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  42. ^ "U.S. Vaccine Safety - Overview, History, and How It Works | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-09-09. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  43. ^ a b Yadav, Dinesh K.; Yadav, Neelam; Khurana, Satyendra Mohan Paul (2014-01-01), Verma, Ashish S.; Singh, Anchal (eds.), "Chapter 26 - Vaccines: Present Status and Applications", Animal Biotechnology, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 491–508, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-416002-6.00026-2, ISBN 978-0-12-416002-6, retrieved 2020-11-16
  44. ^ a b Sobh, Ali; Bonilla, Francisco A. (Nov 2016). "Vaccination in Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice. 4 (6): 1066–1075. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2016.09.012.
  45. ^ a b c d e Su, John R.; Duffy, Jonathan; Shimabukuro, Tom T. (2019), "Vaccine Safety", Vaccinations, Elsevier, pp. 1–24, doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-55435-0.00001-x, ISBN 978-0-323-55435-0, retrieved 2020-11-17
  46. ^ Donegan, Sarah; Bellamy, Richard; Gamble, Carrol L (2009-04-15). "Vaccines for preventing anthrax". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006403.pub2. ISSN 1465-1858. PMC 6532564. PMID 19370633.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  47. ^ Harris, Jason B (2018-11-15). "Cholera: Immunity and Prospects in Vaccine Development". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 218 (Suppl 3): S141–S146. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiy414. ISSN 0022-1899. PMC 6188552. PMID 30184117.
  48. ^ Verma, Shailendra Kumar; Tuteja, Urmil (2016-12-14). "Plague Vaccine Development: Current Research and Future Trends". Frontiers in Immunology. 7. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00602. ISSN 1664-3224. PMC 5155008. PMID 28018363.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  49. ^ Odey, Friday; Okomo, Uduak; Oyo-Ita, Angela (2018-12-05). "Vaccines for preventing invasive salmonella infections in people with sickle cell disease". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006975.pub4. ISSN 1465-1858. PMC 6517230. PMID 30521695.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  50. ^ Schrager, Lewis K.; Harris, Rebecca C.; Vekemans, Johan (2019-02-24). "Research and development of new tuberculosis vaccines: a review". F1000Research. 7. doi:10.12688/f1000research.16521.2. ISSN 2046-1402. PMC 6305224. PMID 30613395.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  51. ^ Meiring, James E; Giubilini, Alberto; Savulescu, Julian; Pitzer, Virginia E; Pollard, Andrew J (2019-11-01). "Generating the Evidence for Typhoid Vaccine Introduction: Considerations for Global Disease Burden Estimates and Vaccine Testing Through Human Challenge". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 69 (Suppl 5): S402–S407. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz630. ISSN 1058-4838. PMC 6792111. PMID 31612941.
  52. ^ Jefferson, Tom; Rivetti, Alessandro; Di Pietrantonj, Carlo; Demicheli, Vittorio (2018-02-01). "Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd004879.pub5. ISSN 1465-1858. PMC 6491174. PMID 29388195.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  53. ^ Yun, Sang-Im; Lee, Young-Min (2014-02-01). "Japanese encephalitis". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 10 (2): 263–279. doi:10.4161/hv.26902. ISSN 2164-5515. PMC 4185882. PMID 24161909.
  54. ^ Griffin, Diane E. (2018-03-01). "Measles Vaccine". Viral Immunology. 31 (2): 86–95. doi:10.1089/vim.2017.0143. ISSN 0882-8245. PMC 5863094. PMID 29256824.
  55. ^ Su, Shih-Bin; Chang, Hsiao-Liang; Chen, And Kow-Tong (5 March 2020). "Current Status of Mumps Virus Infection: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (5). doi:10.3390/ijerph17051686. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 7084951. PMID 32150969.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  56. ^ "Observed Rate of Vaccine Reactions – Measles, Mumps and Rubella Vaccines" (PDF). World Health Organization Information Sheet. May 2014.
  57. ^ a b Di Pietrantonj, Carlo; Rivetti, Alessandro; Marchione, Pasquale; Debalini, Maria Grazia; Demicheli, Vittorio (April 20, 2020). "Vaccines for measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 4: CD004407. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004407.pub4. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 7169657. PMID 32309885.
  58. ^ Bandyopadhyay, Ananda S.; Garon, Julie; Seib, Katherine; Orenstein, Walter A. (2015). "Polio vaccination: past, present and future". Future Microbiology. 10 (5): 791–808. doi:10.2217/fmb.15.19. ISSN 1746-0921. PMID 25824845.
  59. ^ Bruijning-Verhagen, Patricia; Groome, Michelle (July 2017). "Rotavirus Vaccine: Current Use and Future Considerations". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 36 (7): 676–678. doi:10.1097/INF.0000000000001594. ISSN 1532-0987. PMID 28383393.
  60. ^ Lambert, Nathaniel; Strebel, Peter; Orenstein, Walter; Icenogle, Joseph; Poland, Gregory A. (2015-06-06). "Rubella". Lancet (London, England). 385 (9984): 2297–2307. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60539-0. ISSN 0140-6736. PMC 4514442. PMID 25576992.
  61. ^ Voigt, Emily A.; Kennedy, Richard B.; Poland, Gregory A. (September 2016). "Defending against smallpox: a focus on vaccines". Expert Review of Vaccines. 15 (9): 1197–1211. doi:10.1080/14760584.2016.1175305. ISSN 1744-8395. PMC 5003177. PMID 27049653.
  62. ^ Marin, Mona; Marti, Melanie; Kambhampati, Anita; Jeram, Stanley M.; Seward, Jane F. (March 1, 2016). "Global Varicella Vaccine Effectiveness: A Meta-analysis". Pediatrics. 137 (3): e20153741. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-3741. ISSN 1098-4275. PMID 26908671.
  63. ^ Monath, Thomas P.; Vasconcelos, Pedro F. C. (March 2015). "Yellow fever". Journal of Clinical Virology: The Official Publication of the Pan American Society for Clinical Virology. 64: 160–173. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2014.08.030. ISSN 1873-5967. PMID 25453327.
  64. ^ Schmader, Kenneth (August 7, 2018). "Herpes Zoster". Annals of Internal Medicine. 169 (3): ITC19–ITC31. doi:10.7326/AITC201808070. ISSN 1539-3704. PMID 30083718.
  65. ^ Mirhoseini, Ali; Amani, Jafar; Nazarian, Shahram (April 2018). "Review on pathogenicity mechanism of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and vaccines against it". Microbial Pathogenesis. 117: 162–169. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2018.02.032. ISSN 1096-1208. PMID 29474827.
  66. ^ Kubinski, Mareike; Beicht, Jana; Gerlach, Thomas; Volz, Asisa; Sutter, Gerd; Rimmelzwaan, Guus F. (2020-08-12). "Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus: A Quest for Better Vaccines against a Virus on the Rise". Vaccines. 8 (3). doi:10.3390/vaccines8030451. ISSN 2076-393X. PMC 7564546. PMID 32806696.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=User:Tlevit/Attenuated_vaccines&oldid=990304106"