User:SwangoPrism/Carbohydrate synthesis
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[edit]New "Background"
[edit]Carbohydrates can generally be classified into one of two groups, monosacharides, and complex carbohydrates. Monosacharides (also called "simple sugars") are the simplest single units of any carbohydrate; the most common monosaccharides are five and six carbon compounds such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.[1] Complex carbohydrates are combinations of monosaccarides linked together through connections called glycosidic bonds, the product of these linkages can be further categorized according to their size. Two monosaccharides linked together produce a disaccharide such as lactose. Three to ten monosaccharide units linked together are referred to as oligosaccharides. Anything larger than ten monosacharide units is called a polysaccharide, this broad category includes very large molecules such as starch, a plant glucose polymer which can contain millions of glucose residues.[1]
The synthesis of carbohydrates is very important to the study of biochemistry and certain kinds of synthetic chemistry since carbohydrates play important roles in many biological systems. In nature, monosaccharides are synthesized biologically from raw materials through the processes of photosynthesis in plants and certain prokaryotes, or by gluconeogenesis in animals.[1] Laboratory processes also exist for the artificial synthesis of monosaccharides, such as the Kiliani-Fischer synthesis which can sequentially build large simple sugars from smaller monomers.[2]
Biological Synthesis
[edit]
Mammals begin carbohydrate synthesis with monosaccharides, which come from either gluconeogenesis or the breakdown of complex carbohydrates.[1] Gluconeogenesis begins with pyruvate, which comes from alanine and α-ketoglutarate amino acids.[3] This process only begins when glycogen storages are near depletion due to the the higher ATP cost of metabolising proteins into amino acids.[3]
Conversely, plants undergo the Calvin Cycle to photosynthesize glucose-3-phosphate from CO2 and H2O in the presence of light; the phosphate is quickly hydrolyzed into glucose.[4]
Digestion of complex carbohydrates is essential to convert complex polymeric carbohydrates into single glucose molecules.[3] These glucose molecules resynthesize into by glycosidic bonding with existing glycogen stores or glycogenin.[3] The reformation of carbohydrates is essential for converting them into forms that can be more easily transported to cells with higher glucose requirements.[3]
Both mammals and plants use the same mechanisms to convert glucose into complex carbohydrates; the only difference is the enzymes used to catalyze the mechanisms. Mammals require glycogen synthase and glycogenin to synthesize glycogen[3]. Plants synthesize amylose with starch synthase and amylopectin with starch-branching enzymes.[3]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d Pratt, Charlotte W.; Cornely, Kathleen (2014). Essential biochemistry (3. ed ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-08350-5.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help) - ^ Parikh, Arun; Parikh, Hansa; Parikh, Khyati, eds. (2006), "Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis", Name Reactions in Organic Synthesis, Foundation Books, pp. 259–261, doi:10.1017/upo9788175968295.071, ISBN 978-81-7596-829-5, retrieved 2024-11-04
- ^ a b c d e f g Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Sapling Learning, 1636-1638, 1671-1675.
{{cite book}}: Missing or empty|title=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Sapling Learning, 1636-1638, 1671-1675.
{{cite book}}: Missing or empty|title=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)