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Cultural divisions

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Arizona has historically been a place where various peoples have brought their own traditions and adapted them to life in an often inhospitable desert environment. The combination of migration, adaptation, and trade has allowed Arizona to become a crossroads where multiple outside cultures intermingle and develop into something characteristic to the region. While positive for cultural and technological development, this constant contact has created difficulties in identifying distinct historical cultures within the region. Pre-Columbian Arizonan archeology has a number of limitations for multiple reasons, which help to explain the difficulty in establishing a definitive chronology:

Pre-Columbian cultures in Arizona

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Ancestral Puebloan (Pecos)
Hohokam (Gladwin-Haury)
Mogollon (Anyon-Gilman-LeBlanc)
Sinagua (Pilles)
Patayan (Rogers/Schaefer)
8000 BC
7500 BC
7000 BC
6500 BC
6000 BC
5500 BC
5000 BC
4500 BC
4000 BC
3500 BC
3000 BC
2500 BC
2000 BC
1500 BC
1000 BC
500 BC
0 AD
0 AD
100 AD
200 AD
300 AD
400 AD
500 AD
600 AD
700 AD
800 AD
900 AD
1000 AD
1100 AD
1200 AD
1300 AD
1400 AD
1500 AD
1600 AD
1700 AD
1800 AD
1900 AD
2000 AD

Hohokam chronology

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  • Bayman's Formative Period extends to c.1200BC in the Tucson basin. It is broken down into the 1200-800BC San Pedro phase and 800BC-0AD Cienega phase.
 Bayman JM (2001)
Formative
Pre-Classic
Classic
Post-Classic
 Conventional
Pioneer
Colonial
Sedentary
Classic
 Gila Basin - Haury EW (1976)
Vahki
Estrella
Sweetwater
Snaketown
Gila Butte
Santa Cruz
Sacaton
Soho
Civano
 Tucson Basin - Deaver WL, Ciolek-Torrello RS (1995);
Late Archaic
Agua Caliente
Tortolita
Broadline
Rillito
Rincon
Tanque Verde
Tucson
300 BC
200 BC
100 BC
0 AD
100 AD
200 AD
300 AD
400 AD
500 AD
600 AD
700 AD
800 AD
900 AD
1000 AD
1100 AD
1200 AD
1300 AD
1400 AD
1500 AD
1600 AD

Ceramic typology

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  • Classic period ceramics most often contained phyllite, Squaw Peak schist, Camelback granite, Estrella gneiss, South Mountain granodiorite, and/or micaceous schist (Abbott DR, 2016).
    • Phyllite is found in Wingfield Plain and Wingfield Red pottery.
    • Squaw Peak schist is found in Squaw Peak Plain and Squaw Peak Red pottery.
    • Micaceous schist is found in Gila Plain, Gila Variety, and Gila Red pottery.
    • "Sand" (granite, gneiss, and/or granodiorite) is found in Salt Plain, Salt Variety, and Salt Red pottery.
  • Each type can be identified at 30x magnification.

Historically described peoples

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Sobaipuri

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  • Lived along the San Pedro Valley.
  • Acted as a buffer against Apache attacks during the Spanish era.
  • Following successive raids and manpower losses, they largely abandoned the valley c.1762.
    • Some accounts suggest that they were forcibly relocated to frontier Piman missions by the Spanish to bolster their defenses. In 1764, Fr. Manuel Aguirre criticized the Spanish decision, arguing that the Tubac garrison should have been moved to the San Pedro Valley instead to reinforce the Sobaipuri.
    • Another account suggests that the Sobaipuri voluntarily abandoned the area, with Gaybanipitea being permanently abandoned due to death taboos and Quiburi being resettled following rapprochement with the Apaches.
  • Movement of the Sobaipuri has been implicated in the increased number of Apache raids on central Sonora.

Osera

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  • Notes from Juan de Oñate:
    "Near this river [the Gila] there were four or five rancherías (for because the houses of all this river are ranchos I call its settlements rancherías) of people of a different language [from Yuman], from whom I learned that a continuous settlement extended all along the River Nombre de Jesus [Gila] already mentioned, and that they planted maize, beans, and squash like the Amacavas and Bahacechas and made mantas of cotton, some of which I saw, which are stitched like those of the provinces of New Mexico. The people or nation of the River Nombre de Jesus are called Osera, and from words which I learned from them (though having learned only a few I do not affirm it positively) them to be Tepeguanes [Tepehuan], for seeing in the village of Sonbretete [in Zacatecas] a religious who was a Tepeguane interpreter, I learned that the dress of the Tepeguanes was the same as those of the Osera; and I saw likewise that they agreed in the two or three words which I remembered, for, having found these Indians less friendly, and more importunate and more ill-favored than any of those who lived on the River of Buena Esperanza [Colorado], I learned fewer words of their language than of the Amacava.
    "The costume of the women of this nation of Ocara was the same as that of those encountered heretofore. That of the men differed only in the hair, which these wear very long, tied with a maguey cord twisted round the head. Otherwise they go naked like all the rest. Near the rancherías of these last, twenty or more horses were left behind, since there was good grass for grazing, in order that they might make up for the lack of it they had suffered, and that they might be able to return to the province of New Mexico; but when we returned from the sea we found that the Indians had killed and eaten thirteen of them. We had almost certain evidence that they and no others were the guilty ones, although they denied it in great fear, and unanimously placed the blame on others; and we were forced under the circumstances to bear the loss in patience, since they inflicted it on us at the time when no one was rude in our presence, and when it was considered unnecessary to watch the horse-herd at night, as was true from time to time when we set out from the provinces of New Mexico until we returned, so great was the friendliness of the Indians."

Nixora

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  • Origin of Nixora is unclear. Spier suggests a Yuman origin, from nyicao'ʀa "for the old," reflecting a custom where "captives were thought to carry sickness which would fall on the captor unless he got rid of them or they were purified. Women and girls were given into the custody of old men, who, since they had not much longer to live, might chance the danger of keeping them." Because of this, there is a debate as to whether the Nixora were a distinct tribe, or just a collective term for captives that were successively sold between Yumans, Pimans, and the Spanish.
  • In the 1740's, Fr. Jacobo Sedelmayr described Halchidhoma reports of Nixotas along the Colorado River. Sedelmayr never encountered free Nixora, but reported of them within the slave trade. Later he reported that the Papagos spread rumors among the Cocomaricopa to discourage them from visiting the Spanish missions, and consequently selling slaves directly to the Spanish.
  • Fr. Pedro Font was certain of Juan Bautista de Anza that "in order heap up salaries he had listed an interpreter of the Nixora tribe, although there is no such tribe, for in the Pimeria they call Nixoras the Indians whom the tribes of the interior in their wars capture amongst themselves..." On 22 March 1781, he wedded two Nixoras in San Diego de Pitiquito, mentioning that the baptized Andrés and María were "of the Jamajab Tribe" [Mohave] and "Cajuenche Tribe" [Kahuana], respectively.
  • After 1800, Yuma began to replace Nixora as a term for slaves or servants traded in this manner in Sonora.
  • Last appeared in Spanish documents c.1847.

Oñate accounts

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Juan de Oñate records the following groups along the lower Colorado River in 1604-1605, going south from the confluence with the Bill Williams River.

  • Amacava - the Mohave
  • Bahacecha - a Yuman-speaking group, possibly the Quechan
  • Osera - a Piman-speaking group that lived around the confluence with the Gila River.
  • Alebdoma - the Halchidhoma
  • Coguana - the Kohuana
  • Agalle - possibly a Yuman-speaking group
  • Agalecquamaya - the Halyikwamai
  • Cocopa - the Cocopah

Gila

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The commonly-mentioned etymology is that Gila is related to the the O'odham Keli "elder" via Spanish. But the sound change has seemed odd.

  • The Gila River has historically seen its name rendered as Gila, Hila, Jila, Xila, Hela, and Helay.
  • Possible origin from Apache tsihl or dzil "mountain." Benavides mentions the Apaches de Xila in 1634.

Spanish expeditions

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  • Melchior Díaz, 1540.
  • Juan de Oñate, 1604-1605. Accounts by friar Francisco de Escobar and captain Gerónimo Márquez.
  • Eusebio Francisco Kino,

Sites

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Selected Hohokam sites


Spanish missions in Arizona-Sonora

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Sumiaz/sandbox is located in Arizona
Cuiquiburitac
Cuiquiburitac
Gaybanipitea
Gaybanipitea
Spanish missions and visitas in Arizona
Sumiaz/sandbox is located in Sonora
Caborca
Caborca
Tubutama
Tubutama
Oquitoa
Oquitoa
Spanish missions and visitas in Sonora


Pueblos in New Mexico

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Morphology

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The words of Nahuatl can be divided into three basic functional classes: verbs, nouns and particles. Adjectives exist, but they generally behave like nouns and there are very few adjectives that are not derived from either verbal or nominal roots. The few adverbs that can be said to exist fall into the class of particles.

Nouns

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The noun is inflected for two basic contrasting categories:

  • possessedness: non-possessed contrasts with possessed
  • number: singular contrasts with plural

Nouns belong to one of two classes: animates or inanimates. Originally the grammatical distinction between these were that inanimate nouns had no plural forms, but in most modern dialects both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralizable.

Nominal morphology is mostly suffixing. Some irregular formations exist.

Possessedness

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Non-possessed nouns take a suffix called the absolutive. This suffix takes the form -tl after vowels (ā-tl, "water") and -tli after consonants, which assimilates to a final /l/ (tōch-tli, "rabbit", but cal-li, "house"). Some nouns have an irregular form in -in (mich-in, fish). These suffixes are dropped in most derived forms: tōch-calli, "rabbit-hole", mich-matlatl, "fishing net". Possessed nouns do not take the absolutive suffix (see Noun inflection below).

Number

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  • The absolutive singular suffix has three basic forms: -tl/tli, -lin/-in, and some irregular nouns with no suffix.
  • The absolutive plural suffix has three basic forms: -tin, -meh, or just a final glottal stop -h. Some plurals are formed also with reduplication of the noun's first or second syllable, with the reduplicated vowel long.
  • The possessive singular suffix has two basic forms: -uh (on stems ending in a vowel) or -Ø (on stems ending in a consonant).
  • The possessive plural suffix has the form -huān.

Only animate nouns can take a plural form. These include most animate living beings, but also words like tepētl ("mountain"), citlālin ("star") and some other phenomena.

Possible plurals combination
-h -tin -meh
With
reduplication
teōtl, tēteoh tōchtli, tōtōchtin Never occurs
Without
reduplication
cihuātl, cihuāh oquichtli, oquichtin michin, michmeh

The plural is not totally stable and in many cases several different forms are attested.

Noun inflection

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Absolutive singular cihuātl "woman, wife" oquichtli "man, husband" totōlin "turkey" tlācatl "person (sg.)"
Absolutive Plural cihuāh "women" oquichtin "men" totōlmeh "turkeys" tlatlācah "people"
Possessed Singular nocihuāuh "my wife" noquich "my husband" nototōl "my turkey" notlācauh "my person (ie. my slave)"
Possessed Plural nocihuāhuān "my wives" noquichhuān "my husbands" nototōlhuān "my turkeys" notlācahuān "my slaves"

Possessor prefixes

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1st person singular no-, 'my'
2nd person singular mo-, 'your'
3rd person singular ī-, 'his, hers, its
1st person plural to-, 'our'
2nd person plural anmo-, 'your'
3rd person plural īn-, 'their'
Unknown possessor tē-, 'their' (somebody's)

Example: nocal, 'my house'

Some other categories can be inflected on the noun such as:

Honorific formed with the suffix -tzin.
cihuā-tl "woman" + tzin+ tli absolutive = cihuātzintli "woman (said with respect)"

Inalienable possession

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The suffix -yo — the same suffix as the abstract/collective -yō(tl) — may be added to a possessed noun to indicate that it is a part of its possessor, rather than just being owned by it. For example, both nonac and nonacayo (possessed forms of nacatl) mean "my meat", but nonac may refer to meat that one has to eat, while nonacayo refers to the flesh that makes up one's body. This is known as inalienable, integral or organic possession.[1]

Derivational morphology

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  • -tia derives from noun X a verb with an approximate meaning of "to provide with X " or "to become X".
  • -huia derives from noun X a verb with an approximate meaning of "to use X " or "to provide with X".
  • -yōtl derives from a noun X a noun with an abstract meaning of x-hood or x-ness.
  • -yoh derives from a noun X a noun with a meaning of "thing full of X" or "thing with a lot of X"

The structure of verb forms

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The verb is marked with prefixes in order to agree with the person and number of the subject and the object of the sentence; additionally, verbs inflect for tense and aspect. Here are three sentence types, each containing a single word: a nominal predicate, an intransitive sentence, and a transitive sentence.

  • ticihuātl, 'you (singular) are a woman' (sentence with a noun predicate cihuātl, 'woman')
  • ticochi, 'you (singular) sleep' (sentence with an intransitive verb, -cochi, 'sleep')
  • ticochih, 'we sleep' (sentence with an intransitive verb, -cochi, 'sleep')
  • tiquimittah 'we see them' (sentence with a transitive verb, -itta-, 'see')

Caution: ti- means 'you (singular)' but ti-____-h means 'we'.

From these examples, it can be seen that the arrangement of a verb stem and its argument affixes is as follows:

SUBJECT PREFIX + OBJECT PREFIX + VERB STEM + 'h' (example: 'ti-quim-itta-h', we - them - see - we, i.e., 'we see them')


Affixes for the arguments of the verb (subject and object)

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In the table below, Ø indicates there is no marker in the given position.

Subject Object
1st person singular ni-, 'I' -nēch-, 'me'
2nd person singular ti-, 'you' -mitz-, 'you'
3rd person singular Ø-, 'he, she, it' -qui-, 'him, her, it'
1st person plural ti (+ verb +) -h, 'we' -tēch-, 'us'
2nd person plural an (+ verb +) -h, 'you' -amēch-, 'you'
3rd person plural Ø- (+ verb +) -h, 'they' -quim-, 'them'
Unknown -tē-, 'somebody'; -tla-, 'something'

Temporal and aspectual affixes

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  • Present: has no suffix.
  • Customary present or Quotidian: -ni; niquittāni "I used to see it" nipēhuāni "I used to start".
  • Perfect: -c/h/?/Ø, (ō)niquittac "I saw him/her/it (preterit aspect)", ōnipēuh "I started"
    • Note that the optional ō- prefix on the perfect form indicates the act described has consequences that affect the present. Its absence is common in mythic or historical narratives.
  • Future: -z; niquittaz "I will see him/her/it ", nipēhuaz "I will start"
  • Imperfect: -ya; niquittāya "I saw him/her/it (imperfect aspect)", nipēhuāya "I started"
  • Irrealis: -zquiya; niquittāzquiya "I would have seen him/her/it", nipēhuazquiya "I would have started"
  • Pluperfect: -ca; niquittaca "I had seen him", nipēuca "I had started
  • Optative: -cān; niquittacān "would that I could see him", nipēucān "would that I could start"
  • Admonitive: -(h)tin; niquittatin "don't let me see him", nipēucatin "don't let me start" [2]

Applicative

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The applicative construction adds an argument to the verb. The role of the added argument can be benefactive, malefactive, indirect object or similar. It is formed by the suffix -lia.

  • niquittilia "I see it for him"

Causative

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The causative construction also adds an argument to the verb. This argument is an agent causing the object to undertake the action of the verb. It is formed by the suffix -tia.

  • niquittatia "I make him see it/I show it to him"

Unspecified Subject/Passive

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The construction called "passive" by some grammarians and "unspecified subject construction" by others removes the subject from the valency of the verb, substituting it with a null reference, and promoting the argument marked by object prefixes to subject. The passive or unspecified subject construction uses one of two suffixes: -lo or -hua.

  • quitta "he sees it"+ -lo= quittalo "it is seen (by someone)"
  • miqui "he dies" + hua = micohua "there is dying/people are dying"

Directional affixes

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Deixis:

  • -on- "away from the speaker"
  • on+ tlahtoa "to speak" = ontlahtoa "he/she/it speaks towards there"
  • -huāl- " towards the speaker"
  • huāl+ tlahtoa "to speak" = huāllahtoa "he/she/it speaks towards here"

Introvert: Imperfective: -qui "comes towards the speaker in order to X" qui + itta "to see" + qui ="quittaqui "he/she/it will come here to see it" Perfective: -co "has come towards the speaker in order to X" qui + itta "to see" + co =quittaco "he/she/it has come here to see it"

Extrovert: Imperfective: -tīuh "goes away from the speaker in order to X" qui + itta "to see" + tīuh ="quittatīuh "he/she/it will go there to see it" Perfective: -to " has gone away from the speaker in order to X" qui + itta "to see" + to =quittato "he/she/it has gone there to see it"

Derivational

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A number of different suffixes exist to derive nouns from verbs:

  • -lli used to derive passivized nouns from verbs.

tla "something" + ixca "roast" + l + tli = tlaxcalli "something roasted/ a tortilla"
tla + ihcuiloa "write/draw" + l - tli = tlahcuilolli "scripture/ a drawing"

  • -liztli used to derive abstract nouns from verbs.

miqui "to die" + liztli = miquiliztli "death"
tlahcuiloa "to write something" + liztli = tlahcuiloliztli "the concept of writing or being a scribe"

  • -qui used to derive agentive nouns from verbs.

ichtequi "to steal" + qui = ichtecqui "a thief"
tlahuāna "to become drunk" + qui = tlahuānqui "a drunkard"

  • -ni used to derive habitual nouns from verbs.

miqui "to die" +ni = miquīni "a mortal"
cuacua "to bite" + ni = cuacuāni "someone that is known to be capable of or to habitually bite"
tla- "something" + ihtoā "to speak" + ni = tlahtoāni "one that says things; a speaker"

Verbal compounds

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Two verbs can be compounded with the ligature morpheme -ti-.

Relational Nouns and Locatives

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Spatial and other relations are expressed with relational nouns. Some locative suffixes also exist.

Noun Incorporation

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Noun incorporation is productive in Classical Nahuatl and different kinds of material can be incorporated.

  • Body parts
  • Instruments
  • Objects

Indigenous Languages of California

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Language Classification Speakers Pre-contact range
(present counties)
Achumawi Hokan: Palaihnihan 10 Modoc, Lassen, Shasta, Siskiyou
Atsugewi Hokan: Palaihnihan 0 Lassen Cruz, Shasta
Awaswas
(aka Santa Cruz)
Penutian: Ohlone 0 Santa Cruz, Santa Clara
Barbareño
(aka Shmuwich)
Chumashan 0 Santa Barbara
Cahuilla Uto-Aztecan: Cupan 6 Riverside, Imperial, San Diego
Central Pomo Hokan: Pomoan 8 Mendocino
Central Sierra Miwok Penutian: Miwok 12 Tuolumne
Chalon Penutian: Ohlone 0 San Benito
Chemehuevi Uto-Aztecan: Numic 20 San Bernardino, Inyo, Riverside
Chimariko Hokan: Chimariko 0 AAA
Chochenyo Penutian: Ohlone 0 AAA
Coast Miwok Penutian: Miwok 0 AAA
Cupeño Uto-Aztecan: Cupan 0 AAA
Eastern Pomo Hokan: Pomoan 1 AAA
Eel River Athabaskan
(aka Wailaki)
Na-Dene: Athabaskan 0 AAA
Esselen Hokan: Esselen 0 AAA
Gabrielino
(aka Tongva)
Uto-Aztecan: Serran 0 AAA
Hupa Na-Dene: Athabaskan 1 AAA
Ineseño
(aka Samala)
Chumashan 0 AAA
Interior Chumash Chumashan 0 AAA
Island Chumash
(aka Cruzeño)
Chumashan 0 AAA
Juaneño Uto-Aztecan: Cupan 0 AAA
Karkin Penutian: Ohlone 0 AAA
Karuk Hokan: Karuk 12 AAA
Kashaya
(aka SW Pomo)
Hokan: Pomoan 45 AAA
Kato Na-Dene: Athabaskan 0 AAA
Kawaiisu Uto-Aztecan: Numic 5 AAA
Kitanemuk Uto-Aztecan: Serran 0 AAA
Konkow
(aka NW Maidu)
Penutian: Maiduan 3 AAA
Konomihu Hokan: Shastan 0 AAA
Kumeyaay
(aka South Digueño)
Hokan: Yuman 50 AAA
Lake Miwok Penutian: Miwok 1 AAA
Luiseño Uto-Aztecan: Cupan 5 AAA
Maidu
(aka NE Maidu)
Penutian: Maiduan 0 AAA
Maricopa Hokan: Yuman 100 AAA
Mattole Na-Dene: Athabaskan 0 AAA
Modoc Penutian: Plateau 0 AAA
Mojave Hokan: Yuman 100 AAA
Mono Uto-Aztecan: Numic 37 AAA
Mutsun Penutian: Ohlone 0 AAA
New River Shasta Hokan: Shastan 0 AAA
Nisenan
(aka S Maidu)
Penutian: Maiduan 1 AAA
Nomlaki Penutian: Wintuan 0 AAA
Northeastern Pomo Hokan: Pomoan 0 AAA
Northern Paiute Uto-Aztecan: Numic 700 AAA
Northern Pomo Hokan: Pomoan 0 AAA
Northern Sierra Miwok Penutian: Miwok 7 AAA
Northern Yukian Yukian 0 AAA
Obispeño
(aka N Chumash)
Chumashan 0 AAA
Okwanuchu Hokan: Shastan 0 AAA
Panamint
(aka Timbisha)
Uto-Aztecan: Numic 20 AAA
Patwin Penutian: Wintuan 1 AAA
Plains Miwok Penutian: Miwok 0 AAA
Purisimeño Chumashan 0 AAA
Quechan
(aka Yuma)
Hokan: Yuman 150 AAA
Ramaytush Penutian: Ohlone 0 AAA
Rumsen Penutian: Ohlone 0 AAA
Saclan
(aka Bay Miwok)
Penutian: Miwok 0 AAA
Salinan Hokan: Salinan 0 AAA
[[]] [[]]: [[]] ### AAA
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Kampō

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Rōmaji Kanji Kampō # Class (Subclass)
Anchū-San 安中散 5 温裏剤 (温中散寒剤-大建中湯)
Bakumondō-Tō 麦門冬湯 29 治燥剤 (滋陰潤燥剤)
Bōfū-Tsūshō-San 防風通聖散 62 表裏双解剤(解表攻裏剤)
Bōi-ōgi-tō 防已黄耆湯 ぼういおうぎとう 20 fáng jǐ huáng qí wán 防己黃耆丸
Bukuryō-in 茯苓飲 ぶくりょういん 69
Bukuryō-in-gō-hange-kōboku-tō 茯苓飲合半夏厚朴湯 ぶくりょういんごうはんげこうぼくとう 116
Byakko-ka-ninjin-tō 白虎加人参湯 びゃっこかにんじんとう 34 bái hǔ tāng wán 白虎湯丸
Chikujo-untan-tō 竹じょ温胆湯 ちくじょうんたんとう 91
Chōi-jōki-tō 調胃承気湯 ちょういじょうきとう 74
Chorei-tō 猪苓湯 ちょれいとう 40
Chorei-tō-gō-shimotsu-tō 猪苓湯合四物湯 ちょれいとうごうしもつとう 112
Chōtō-san 釣藤散 ちょうとうさん 47
Dai-bōfū-tō 大防風湯 だいぼうふうとう 97
Dai-jōki-tō 大承気湯 だいじょうきとう 133
Dai-kenchū-tō 大建中湯 だいけんちゅうとう 100
Daiō-botanpi-tō 大黄牡丹皮湯 だいおうぼたんぴとう 33
Daiō-kanzō-tō 大黄甘草湯 だいおうかんぞうとう 84
Dai-saiko-tō 大柴胡湯 だいさいことう 8 dà chái hú wán 大柴胡丸
Eppi-ka-jutsu-tō 越婢加朮湯 えっぴかじゅつとう 28
Goko-tō 五虎湯 ごことう 95
Gorei-san 五苓散 ごれいさん 17 wǔ líng sǎn wán 五苓散丸
Gorin-san 五淋散 ごりんさん 56
Goshaku-san 五積散 ごしゃくさん 63
Gosha-jinki-gan 牛車腎気丸 ごしゃじんきがん 107
Goshūyu-tō 呉茱萸湯 ごしゅうとう 31
Hachimi-jiō-gan 八味地黄丸 はちみじおうがん 7 bāwèi dìhuáng wán 八味地黄丸
Hainō-san-kyū-tō 排膿散及湯 はいのうさんきゅうとう 122
Hange-byakujutsu-tenma-tō 半夏白朮天麻湯 はんげびゃくじゅつてんまとう 37
Hange-kōboku-tō 半夏厚朴湯 はんげこうぼくとう 16 bàn xià hòu pō wán 半夏厚樸丸
Hange-shashin-tō 半夏瀉心湯 はんげしゃしんとう 14
Heii-san 平胃散 へいいさん 79 píng wèi sǎn wán 平胃散丸
Hochū-ekki-tō 補中益気湯 ほちゅうえっきとう 41 bǔ zhōng yì qì wán 补中益气丸
Inchin-gorei-san 茵ちん五苓散 いんちんごれいさん 117 yīnchén wǔlíng sǎn 茵陈五苓散
Inchinkō-tō 茵ちん蒿湯 いんちんこうとう 135
Irei-tō 胃苓湯 いれいとう 115
Ji-daboku-ippō 治打撲一方 ぢだぼくいっぽう 89
Jiin-kōka-tō 滋陰降火湯 じいんこうかとう 93
Jiin-shihō-tō 滋陰至宝湯 じいんしほうとう 92
Jinso-in 参蘇飲 じんそいん 66
Ji-zusō-ippō 治頭瘡一方 ぢずそういっぽう 59
Junchō-tō 潤腸湯 じゅんちょうとう 51
Jūmi-haidoku-tō 十味敗毒湯 じゅうみはいどくとう 6
Jūzen-daiho-tō 十全大補湯 じゅうぜんだいほとう 48 shí quán dà bǔ wán 十全大补丸
Kakkon-tō 葛根湯 かっこんとう 1
Kakkon-tō-ka-senkyū-shin'i 葛根湯加川きゅう辛夷 かっこんとうかせんきゅうしんい 2
Kami-kihi-tō 加味帰脾湯 かみきひとう 137
Kami-shōyō-san 加味逍遙散 かみしょうようさん 24 jiā wèi xiāo yáo wán 加味逍遙丸
Kan-baku-daisō-tō 甘麦大棗湯 かんばくだいそうとう 72 gān mài dà zǎo wán 甘麥大棗丸
Keigai-rengyō-tō 荊芥連翹湯 けいがいれんぎょうとう 50
Keihi-tō 啓脾湯 けいひとう 128
Keishi-tō 桂枝湯 けいしとう 45 guì zhī tāng wán 桂枝湯丸
Keishi-bukuryō-gan 桂枝茯苓丸 けいしぶくりょうがん 25 guì zhī fú líng wán 桂枝茯苓丸
Keishi-bukuryō-gan-ka-yokui'nin 桂枝茯苓丸加よく苡仁 けいしぶくりょうがんかよくいにん 125 guì zhī fú líng wán 桂枝茯苓丸
Keishi-ka-jutsubu-tō 桂枝加朮附湯 けいしかじゅつぶとう 18
Keishi-ka-ryūkotsu-borei-tō 桂枝加竜骨牡蛎湯 けいしかりゅうこつぼれいとう 26
Keishi-ka-shakuyaku-tō 桂枝加芍薬湯 けいしかしゃくやくとう 60
Keishi-ka-shakuyaku-daiō-tō 桂枝加芍薬大黄湯 けいしかしゃくやくだいおうとう 134
Keishi-ninjin-tō 桂枝人参湯 けいしにんじんとう 82
Kihi-tō 帰脾湯 きひとう 65 guī pí wán 归脾丸
Kikyō-tō 桔梗湯 ききょうとう 138 jié gěng wán 桔梗丸
Kōso-san 香蘇散 こうそさん 70
Kyūki-kyōgai-tō きゅう帰膠艾湯 きゅうききょうがいとう 77
Ma-kyō-kan-seki-tō 麻杏甘石湯 まきょうかんせきとう 55
Ma-kyō-yoku-kan-tō 麻杏よく甘湯 まきょうよくかんとう 78
Maō-tō 麻黄湯 まおうとう 27 má huáng tāng wán 麻黃湯丸
Maō-bushi-saishin-tō 麻黄附子細辛湯 まおうぶしさいしんとう 127
Mashinin-gan 麻子仁丸 ましにんがん 126 má zǐ rén wán 麻子仁丸
Moku-boi-tō 木防已湯 もくぼういとう 36
Nichin-tō 二陳湯 にちんとう 81 èr chén wán 二陳丸
Nijutsu-tō 二朮湯 にじゅつとう 88
Ninjin-tō 人参湯 にんじんとう 32 rén shēn bài dú wán 人參敗毒丸
Ninjin-yōei-tō 人参養栄湯 にんじんようえいとう 108
Nyoshin-san 女神散 にょしんさん 67
Ōgi-kenchū-tō 黄耆建中湯 おうぎけんちゅうとう 98
Ōren-tō 黄連湯 おうれんとう 120 huáng lián sù wán 黃連素丸
Ōren-gedoku-tō 黄連解毒湯 おうれんげどくとう 15 huáng lián jiě dú wán 黃連解毒丸
Otsuji-tō 乙字湯 おつじとう 3
Rikkō-san 立効散 りっこうさん 110
Rikkunshi-tō 六君子湯 りっくんしとう 43 liù jūn zǐ wán 六君子丸
Rokumi-gan 六味丸 ろくみがん 87 liù wèi dì huáng wán 六味地黄丸
Ryō-kan-kyo-mi-shin-ge-nin-tō 苓甘姜味辛夏仁湯 りょうかんきょみしんげにんとう 119
Ryō-kei-jutsu-kan-tō 苓桂朮甘湯 りょうけいじゅつかんとう 39
Ryō-kyo-jutsu-kan-tō 苓姜朮甘湯 りょうきょじゅつかんとう 118
Ryūtan-shakan-tō 竜胆瀉肝湯 りゅうたんしゃかんとう 76 lóng dǎn xiè gān wán 龍膽瀉肝丸
Saiboku-tō 柴朴湯 さいぼくとう 96
Saikan-tō 柴陥湯 さいかんとう 73
Saiko-ka-ryūkotsu-borei-tō 柴胡加竜骨牡蛎湯 さいこかりゅうこつぼれいとう 12
Saiko-keishi-tō 柴胡桂枝湯 さいこけいしとう 10
Saiko-keishi-kankyō-tō 柴胡桂枝乾姜湯 さいこけいしかんきょうとう 11
Saiko-seikan-tō 柴胡清肝湯 さいこせいかんとう 80 chái hú shū gān wán 柴胡舒肝丸
Sairei-tō 柴苓湯 さいれいとう 114
Sanmotsu-ōgon-tō 三物黄ごん湯 さんもつおうごんとう 121
San'ō-shashin-tō 三黄瀉心湯 さんおうしゃしんとう 113
Sansonin-tō 酸棗仁湯 さんそにんとう 103 suān zǎo rén tāng piàn 酸棗仁湯片
Seihai-tō 清肺湯 せいはいとう 90 qīng fèi yì huǒ piàn 清肺抑火片
Seijō-bōfū-tō 清上防風湯 せいじょうぼうふうとう 58
Seishin-renshi-in 清心蓮子飲 せいしんれんしいん 111
Seisho-ekki-tō 清暑益気湯 せいしょえっきとう 136
Senkyū-chachō-san 川きゅう茶調散 せんきゅうちゃちょうさん 124
Sha-kanzō-tō 炙甘草湯 しゃかんぞうとう 64 zhì gān cǎo wán 炙甘草丸
Shakuyaku-kanzō-tō 芍薬甘草湯 しゃくやくかんぞうとう 68 sháo yào gān cǎo wán 芍藥甘草丸
Shichimotsu-kōka-tō 七物降下湯 しちもつこうかとう 46
Shigyaku-san 四逆散 しぎゃくさん 35 sì nì sǎn wán 四逆散丸
Shikunshi-tō 四君子湯 しくんしとう 75 sì jūn zǐ tāng wán 四君子湯丸
Shimotsu-tō 四物湯 しもつとう 71 sì wù tāng wán 四物湯丸
Shinbu-tō 真武湯 しんぶとう 30 zhēn wǔ tāng wán 真武湯丸
Shin'i-seihai-tō 辛夷清肺湯 しんいせいはいとう 104
Shinpi-tō 神秘湯 しんぴとう 85
Shōfū-san 消風散 しょうふうさん 22 qīng qì huà tán wán 清氣化痰丸
Shō-hange-ka-bukuryō-tō 小半夏加茯苓湯 しょうはんげかぶくりょうとう 21
Shō-kenchū-tō 小建中湯 しょうけんちゅうとう 99 xiǎo jiàn zhōng wán 小健中丸
Shō-saiko-tō 小柴胡湯 しょうさいことう 9 xiǎo chái hú tāng wán 小柴胡汤丸
Shō-saiko-tō-ka-kikyō-sekkō 小柴胡湯加桔梗石膏 しょうさいことうかききょうせっこう 109 xiǎo chái hú tāng wán 小柴胡湯丸
Shō-seiryu-tō 小青竜湯 しょうせいりゅうとう 19 xiǎo qīng lóng wán 小青龍丸
Shōma-kakkon-tō 升麻葛根湯 しょうまかっこんとう 101
Sokei-kakketsu-tō 疎経活血湯 そけいかっけつとう 53 tōng qiào huó xuè wán 通竅活血丸
Tōkaku-jōki-tō 桃核承気湯 とうかくじょうきとう 61
Tōki-tō 当帰湯 とうきとう 102 dāng guī wán 當歸丸
Tōki-inshi 当帰飲子 とうきいんし 86
Tōki-kenchū-tō 当帰建中湯 とうきけんちゅうとう 123
Tōki-shakuyaku-san 当帰芍薬散 とうきしゃくやくさん 23
Tōki-shigyaku-ka-goshū-shōkyo-tō 当帰四逆加呉茱萸生姜湯 とうきしぎゃくかごしゅうしょうきょとう 38 dāng guī sì nì wán 當歸四逆丸
Tsū-dō-san 通導散 つうどうさん 105
Unkei-tō 温経湯 うんけいとう 106
Unsei-in 温清飲 うんせいいん 57
Yokuinin-tō よく苡仁湯 よくいにんとう 52
Yokukansan 抑肝散 よくかんさん 54
Yoku-kan-san-ka-chinpi-hange 抑肝散加陳皮半夏 よくかんさんかちんぴはんげ 83

Missions

[edit]
Mission Founded Founder Status Location Coordinates
Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Opodepe 1649 S.J.
Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de Cósari 1687 Kino Ruins Cucurpe, Sonora 30°30′40″N 110°42′00″W / 30.511°N 110.70°W / 30.511; -110.70
Nuestra Señora de los Remedios de Doágibubig 1687 Kino Ruins Ímuris, Sonora 30°46′26″N 110°42′36″W / 30.774°N 110.71°W / 30.774; -110.71
Mission San Ignacio de Cabórica 1687 Kino Preserved Magdalena, Sonora
San Pedro y San Pablo del Tubutama 1691 Kino Active Tubutama, Sonora

Creative cities network

[edit]

The UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) is a project of UNESCO launched in 2004 to promote cooperation among cities which recognized creativity as a major factor in their urban development.[3][4][5] As of 2017, there are 180 cities from 72 countries in the network.[6]

The network recognizes the concept of creative tourism, defined as travel associated with creative experience and participation,[7] and aims to foster mutual international cooperation with and between member cities committed to invest in creativity as a driver for sustainable urban development, social inclusion and cultural vibrancy.[8] The overall situation and activities within the Network is reported in the UCCN Membership Monitoring Reports, each for a 4-year period for a particular city.[9] The network recognizes the following creative fields:[3] crafts and folk art, design, film, gastronomy, literature, media arts, and music.

List of members

[edit]
City Country Category Year
Adelaide  Australia Music 2015
Al-Ahsa  Saudi Arabia Craft and folk art 2015
Alba  Italy Gastronomy 2017
Almaty  Kazakhstan Music 2017
Amarante  Portugal Music 2017
Aswan  Egypt Craft and folk art 2005
Auckland  New Zealand Music 2017
Austin  United States Media arts 2015
Baguio  Philippines Craft and folk art 2017
Bamyan  Afghanistan Crafts and folk art 2015
Bandung  Indonesia Design 2015
Barcelona  Spain Literature 2015
Barcelos  Portugal Craft and folk art 2017
Beijing  China Design 2012
Belém  Brazil Gastronomy 2015
Bergen  Norway Gastronomy 2015
Bilbao  Spain Design 2014
Bitola  North Macedonia Film 2015
Bogotá  Colombia Music 2012
Bologna  Italy Music 2006
Bradford  United Kingdom Film 2009
Braga  Portugal Media arts 2017
Brasília  Brazil Design 2017
Brazzaville  Congo Music 2013
Bristol  United Kingdom Film 2017
Brno  Czechia Music 2017
Bucheon  South Korea Literature 2017
Budapest  Hungary Design 2015
Buenaventura  Colombia Gastronomy 2017
Buenos Aires  Argentina Design 2005
Burgos  Spain Gastronomy 2015
Busan  South Korea Film 2014
Cairo  Egypt Craft and folk art 2017
Cape Town  South Africa Design 2017
Carrara  Italy Craft and folk art 2017
Changsha  China Media arts 2017
Chengdu  China Gastronomy 2010
Chennai  India Music 2017
Chiang Mai  Thailand Craft and folk art 2017
Chordeleg  Ecuador Craft and folk art 2017
Cochabamba  Bolivia Gastronomy 2017
Curitiba  Brazil Design 2014
Daegu  South Korea Music 2017
Dakar  Senegal Media arts 2014
Dénia  Spain Gastronomy 2015
Detroit  United States Design 2015
Dubai  United Arab Emirates Design 2017
Dublin  Ireland Literature 2010
Dundee  United Kingdom Design 2014
Dunedin  New Zealand Literature 2014
Durán  Ecuador Craft and folk art 2015
Durban  South Africa Literature 2017
Edinburgh  United Kingdom Literature 2004
Enghien-les-Bains  France Media arts 2013
Ensenada  Mexico Gastronomy 2015
Fabriano  Italy Crafts and folk art 2013
Florianópolis  Brazil Gastronomy 2014
Frutillar  Chile Music 2017
Gabrovo  Bulgaria Craft and folk art 2017
Galway  Ireland Film 2014
Gaziantep  Turkey Gastronomy 2015
Geelong  Australia Design 2017
Ghent  Belgium Music 2009
Glasgow  United Kingdom Music 2008
Granada  Spain Literature 2014
Graz  Austria Design 2011
Guadalajara  Mexico Media arts 2017
Gwangju  South Korea Media arts 2014
Hamamatsu  Japan Music 2014
Hangzhou  China Craft and folk art 2012
Hanover  Germany Music 2014
Hatay  Turkey Gastronomy 2017
Heidelberg  Germany Literature 2014
Helsinki  Finland Design 2014
Icheon  South Korea Craft and folk art 2010
Idanha-a-Nova  Portugal Music 2015
Iowa City  United States Literature 2008
Isfahan  Iran Craft and folk art 2015
Istanbul  Turkey Design 2017
Jacmel  Haiti Craft and folk art 2014
Jeonju  South Korea Gastronomy 2012
Jaipur  India Craft and folk art 2015
Jingdezhen  China Crafts and folk art 2014
João Pessoa  Brazil Craft and folk art 2017
Kanazawa  Japan Craft and folk art 2009
Kansas City  United States Music 2017
Katowice  Poland Music 2015
Kingston  Jamaica Music 2015
Kinshasa  Congo DR Music 2015
Kolding  Denmark Design 2017
Kortrijk  Netherlands Design 2017
Košice  Slovakia Media arts 2017
Kraków  Poland Literature 2013
Kütahya  Turkey Craft and folk art 2017
Lillehammer  Norway Literature 2017
Limoges  France Craft and folk art 2017
Linz  Austria Media arts 2014
Liverpool  United Kingdom Music 2015
Ljubljana  Slovenia Literature 2015
Łódź  Poland Film 2017
Lubumbashi  Congo DR Craft and folk art 2015
Lviv  Ukraine Literature 2015
Lyon  France Media arts 2008
Madaba  Jordan Craft and folk art 2017
Macau  China Gastronomy 2017
Manchester  United Kingdom Literature 2017
Mannheim  Germany Music 2014
Medellín  Colombia Music 2015
Melbourne  Australia Literature 2008
Mexico City  Mexico Design 2017
Milan  Italy Literature 2017
Montevideo  Uruguay Literature 2015
Morelia  Mexico Music 2017
Nagoya  Japan Design 2008
Nassau  Bahamas Craft and folk art 2014
Norrköping  Sweden Music 2017
Norwich  United Kingdom Literature 2012
Nottingham  United Kingdom Literature 2015
Óbidos  Portugal Literature 2015
Östersund  Sweden Gastronomy 2010
Ouagadougou  Burkina Faso Craft and folk art 2017
Paducah  United States Craft and folk art 2013
Panama City  Panama Gastronomy 2017
Paraty  Brazil Gastronomy 2017
Parma  Italy Gastronomy 2015
Pekalongan  Indonesia Craft and folk art 2014
Pesaro  Italy Music 2017
Phuket  Thailand Gastronomy 2015
Popayán  Colombia Gastronomy 2005
Porto-Novo  Benin Craft and folk art 2017
Prague  Czechia Literature 2014
Praia  Cabo Verde Music 2017
Puebla  Mexico Design 2015
Qingdao  China Film 2017
Rasht  Iran Gastronomy 2015
Reykjavík  Iceland Literature 2011
Rome  Italy Film 2015
Saint-Étienne  France Design 2010
Salvador  Brazil Music 2015
San Antonio  United States Gastronomy 2017
San Cristóbal de las Casas  Mexico Craft and folk art 2015
Santa Fe  United States Craft and folk art 2005
Santos  Brazil Film 2015
Sapporo  Japan Media arts 2013
Seattle  United States Literature 2017
Seoul  South Korea Design 2010
Seville  Spain Music 2006
Shaki  Azerbaijan Craft and folk art 2017
Shanghai  China Design 2010
Shenzhen  China Design 2008
Shunde  China Gastronomy 2014
Singapore  Singapore Design 2015
Sofia  Bulgaria Film 2014
Sokodé  Togo Crafts and folk art 2017
Suzhou  China Craft and folk art 2014
Sydney  Australia Film 2010
Tamba-Sasayama  Japan Craft and folk art 2015
Tartu  Estonia Literature 2015
Tel Aviv  Israel Media arts 2014
Terrassa  Spain Film 2017
Tétouan  Morocco Craft and folk art 2017
Tongyeong  South Korea Music 2015
Toronto  Canada Media arts 2017
Tsuruoka  Japan Gastronomy 2014
Tucson  United States Gastronomy 2015
Tunis  Tunisia Craft and folk art 2017
Turin  Italy Design 2014
Ulyanovsk  Russia Literature 2015
Utrecht  Netherlands Literature 2017
Varanasi  India Music 2015
Wuhan  China Design 2017
Yamagata  Japan Film 2017
York  United Kingdom Media arts 2014
Zahlé  Lebanon Gastronomy 2013

Nakasendo

[edit]

Stations of the Nakasendō

[edit]
Nihonbashi's highway distance marker
Keisai Eisen's print of Kōnosu-shuku (The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō)
Hiroshige's print of Annaka-shuku
Eisen's print of Iwamurada-shuku
Hiroshige's print of Seba-juku
Main street through Magome-juku
Marker for Akasaka-juku's honjin
Hiroshige's print of Sanjō Ōhashi

The sixty-nine stations of the Nakasendō, in addition to the starting and ending locations (which are shared with the Tōkaidō), are listed below in order. The stations are divided by their present-day prefecture and include the name of their present-day city/town/village/district.

No. Name Japanese Station
(km)
Distance
(km)
Historical Location Modern Location
Province District Prefecture Municipality
Nihonbashi 日本橋 0.0 0.0 Musashi Toshima Tokyo Chūō
1 Itabashi-shuku 板橋宿 9.8 9.8 Itabashi
2 Warabi-shuku 蕨宿 9.0 18.8 Adachi Saitama Warabi
3 Urawa-shuku 浦和宿 5.4 24.2 Saitama
4 Ōmiya-shuku 大宮宿 5.0 29.2
5 Ageo-shuku 上尾宿 7.9 37.1 Ageo
6 Okegawa-shuku 桶川宿 3.7 40.8 Okegawa
7 Kōnosu-shuku 平塚宿 7.2 48.0 Kōnosu
8 Kumagai-shuku 熊谷宿 16.4 64.4 Ōsato Kumagaya
9 Fukaya-shuku 深谷宿 10.8 75.2 Hanzawa Fukaya
10 Honjō-shuku 本庄宿 10.5 85.7 Kodama Honjō
11 Shinmachi-shuku 新町宿 7.9 93.6 Kōzuke Midono Gunma Takasaki
12 Kuragano-shuku 倉賀野宿 5.9 99.5 Gunma
13 Takasaki-shuku 高崎宿 6.0 105.5
14 Itahana-shuku 板鼻宿 7.2 112.7 Usui Annaka
15 Annaka-shuku 安中宿 3.3 116.0
16 Matsuida-shuku 松井田宿 9.6 125.6
17 Sakamoto-shuku 坂本宿 9.5 135.1
18 Karuisawa-shuku 軽井沢宿 1.6 146.7 Shinano Saku Nagano Karuizawa
19 Kutsukake-shuku 沓掛宿 4.5 151.2
20 Oiwake-shuku 追分宿 4.3 155.5
21 Otai-shuku 小田井宿 5.0 160.5 Miyota
22 Iwamurada-shuku 岩村田宿 4.7 165.2 Saku
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# SHUKU Ja km kmT PROV DIST PREF CITY
# SHUKU Ja km kmT PROV DIST PREF CITY
# SHUKU Ja km kmT PROV DIST PREF CITY
# SHUKU Ja km kmT PROV DIST PREF CITY
  1. ^ Andrews (2003): pp. 382–384; Carochi (2001): pp. 308–309; Lockhart (2001): pp. 69–70.
  2. ^ http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/nahuatl/NahuatlGrammarBook.pdf
  3. ^ a b "What is the Creative Cities Network ?", a UNESCO webpage
  4. ^ Creative Cities Network homepage
  5. ^ Inequalities in Creative Cities: Issues, Approaches, Comparisons, 2016, ISBN 1349951153 p. 241
  6. ^ Macdonald, Moira (31 October 2017). "UNESCO declares Seattle a City of Literature". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  7. ^ OECD Studies on Tourism Tourism and the Creative Economy, 2014, ISBN 9264207872, p. 83
  8. ^ "UCCN today: 116 Cities in 54 countries | Creative Cities Network". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  9. ^ "Reporting & monitoring", a UCCN webpage