User:Stevey7788/Campbell
Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas
List[edit]
The linguist Lyle Campbell gives a list of various proposals of macro-families and language relationships, to which he assigns different percentage values of probability and confidence, depending on his views of the proposals' strengths. For example, if Turkish and Quechua were compared, the probability value might be -95%, while the confidence value might be 95%. 0% would mean complete uncertainty.
| Language Family | Probability | Confidence |
|---|---|---|
| Macro-Siouan [1] | -20% | 75% |
| Aztec-Tanoan | 0% | 50% |
| Quechumaran | +50% | 50% |
| Eskimo-Aleut, Chukotan [2] |
-25% | 20% |
| Na-Dene | 0% | 25% |
| Tlingit-Eyak-Athabaskan | +75% | 40% |
| Mosan | -60% | 65% |
| Wakashan and Chimakuan | 0% | 25% |
| Almosan and beyond | -75% | 50% |
| Hokan-Subtiaba | -90% | 75% |
| Coahuiltecan | -85% | 80% |
| Guaicurian-Hokan | 0% | 10% |
| Quechua as Hokan | -85% | 80% |
| Tunican | 0% | 20% |
| Natchez-Muskogean | +40% | 20% |
| Atakapa-Chitimacha | -50% | 60% |
| Gulf | -25% | 40% |
| Algonkian-Gulf | -50% | 50% |
| Mexican Penutian | -40% | 60% |
| Sahaptian-Klamath-(Molala) | +75% | 50% |
| Sahaptian-Klamath-Tsimshian | +10% | 10% |
| Takelman [3] | +80% | 60% |
| Zuni-Penutian | -80% | 50% |
| Yukian-Siouan | -60% | 75% |
| Yukian-Gulf | -85% | 70% |
| Keresan and Zuni | -40% | 40% |
| Keresan and Uto-Aztecan | 0% | 60% |
| Macro-Mayan [4] | +30% | 25% |
| Maya-Chipaya | -80% | 95% |
| Maya-Chipaya-Yunga | -90% | 95% |
| Otomanguean-Huave | +25% | 25% |
| Tlapanec-Subtiaba as Otomanguean | +95% | 90% |
| Jicaque-Subtiaba | -60% | 80% |
| Jicaque-Tequistlatecan | +65% | 50% |
| Jicaque-Hokan | -30% | 25% |
| Xinca-Lenca | 0% | 50% |
| Tarascan-Quechua | -90% | 80% |
| Misumalpan-Chibchan | +20% | 50% |
| Nostratic-Amerind | -90% | 75% |
Source: from Campbell, ch. 8 Distant Genetic Relationships, pp. 260-329
Linguistic Areas[edit]
Campbell also lists over 20 sprachbunds or linguistic areas, many of which are still hypothetical.
Note: Some linguistic areas may overlap with others.
| Linguistic Area (Sprachbund) | Included families, branches, and languages |
|---|---|
| Northern Northwest [5] | Aleut, Haida, Eyak, Tlingit |
| Northwest Coast [6] | Eyak, Tlingit, Athabaskan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Alsea, Coosan, Kalapuyan, Takelma, Lower Chinook |
| Plateau [7] | Sahaptian, Upper Chinook, Nicola, Cayuse, Molala, Klamath, Kutenai, Interior Salishan |
| Northern California | Algic, Athabaskan, Yukian, Miwokan, Wintuan, Naiduan, Klamath-Modoc, Pomo, Chimariko, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Shasta, Yana, (Washo) |
| Clear Lake | Lake Miwok, Patwin, East and Southeastern Pomo, Wappo |
| South Coast Range | Chumash, Esselen, Salinan |
| Southern California-Western Arizona | Yuman, Cupan (Uto-Aztecan), less extensively Takic (Uto-Aztecan) |
| Great Basin | Numic (Uto-Aztecan), Washo |
| Pueblo | Keresan, Tanoan, Zuni, Hopi, some Apachean branches |
| Plains | Athabaskan, Algonquian, Siouan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Uto-Aztecan, Tonkawa |
| Northeast | Winnebago (Siouan), Northern Iroquian, Eastern Algonquian |
| Southeast ("Gulf") | Muskogean family, Chitimacha, Atapaka, Tunica, Natchez, Yuchi, Ofo (Siouan), Biloxi (Siouan) — sometimes also Tutelo, Catawban, Quapaw, Dhegiha (all Siouan); Tuscarora, Cherokee, Shawnee |
| Mesoamerican | Aztecan (Nahua branch of Uto-Aztecan), Mixe-Zoquean, Mayan, Xincan, Otomanguean (except Chichimeco-Jonaz and some Pame varieties, Totonacan, Tarascan, Cuitlatec, Tequistlatecan, Huave |
| Mayan [8] | Mayan, Xincan, Lencan, Jicaquean |
| Colombian-Central American [9] | Chibchan, Misumalpan, Mangue, Subtiaba; sometimes Lencan, Jicaquean, Chochoan, Betoi |
| Venezuelan-Antillean [10] | Arawakan, Cariban, Guamo, Otomaco, Yaruro, Warao |
| Andean [11] | Quechuan, Aymaran, Callahuaya, Chipaya |
| Ecuadorian-Colombian (subarea of Andean) |
Páez, Guambiano (Paezan), Cuaiquer, Cayapa, Colorado (Barbacoan), Camsá, Cofán, Esmeralda, Ecuadorian Quechua |
| Orinoco-Amazon | Yanomaman, Piaroa (Sálivan), Arawakan/Maipurean, Cariban, Jotí, Uruak/Ahuaqué, Sapé (Kaliana), Makú |
| Amazon | Arawakan/Maipurean, Arauan/Arawan, Cariban, Chapacuran, Ge/Je, Panoan, Puinavean, Tacanan, Tucanoan, Tupian |
| Southern Cone | Mapudungu (Araucanian), Guaycuruan, Chon |
Source: from Campbell, ch. 9 Linguistic Areas of the Americas, pp. 330-352
Mixed languages[edit]
Lyle Campbell gives a list of pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name.
- Mednyj Aleut (Copper Island Aleut)
- Chinook Jargon
- Broken Slavey (Slavey Jargon)
- Loucheux Jargon
- Michif (French Cree, Métis, Metchif)
- "Boken Oghibbeway" (Broken Ojibwa)
- Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada)
- Delaware Jargon
- Pidgin Massachusett
- Jargonized Powhatan
- Lingua Franca Creek
- Lingua Franca Apalachee
- Mobilian Jargon
- Güegüence-Nicarao (formerly spoken in Nicaragua)
- Carib Pidgin or Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin (Ndjuka-Trio)
- Carib Pidgin-Arawak mixed language
- Media Lengua
- Catalangu
- Callahuaya (Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
- Nheengatú or Lingua Geral Amazonica ("Lingua Boa," Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
- Lingua Geral do Sul or Lingua Geral Paulista (Tupí Austral)
- Labrador Eskimo Pidgin
- Hudson Strait Pidgin Eskimo (spoken from 1750-1850)
- Nootka Jargon (1700s-1800s; later replaced by Chinook Jargon)
- Trader Navajo
- Yopará (Guaraní-Spanish pidgin)
- Afro-Seminole Creole (variety of Gullah)
- Haida Jargon
- Kutenai Jargon
- Guajiro-Spanish mixed language
Lingua francas
- Ocaneechi/Occaneechee (spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times)
- Tuscarora language
- Plains sign language
Source: from Campbell, Appendix:Native American Pidgins and Trade Languages, pp. 18-25
Theories[edit]
Lyle Campbell lists several theories for the historical origins of Amerindian languages.
- A single, one-language migration (currently not widely accepted)
- A few linguistically distant migrations (favored by Sapir)
- Multiple migrations
- Multilingual migrations (single migration with multiple languages)
- The influx of already diversified but related languages
- Extinction of Old World linguistic relatives (while the New World ones survived)
- Migration down the Pacific coast instead of the Bering Strait
Source: from Campbell, ch. 3 The Origin of American Indian Languages, pp. 90-106
Notes[edit]
- ^ Siouan-Iroquoian-Caddoan-[Yuchi]
- ^ American-Arctic-Paleosiberian Phylum, Luoravetlan — and beyond
- ^ Alternatively Takelma-Kalapuyan
- ^ Macro-Mayan includes Mayan, Totonacan, Mixe-Zoquean, and sometimes also Huave.
- ^ May be a subarea of the Northern Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund is contains languages that have strict head-final syntax.
- ^ Characterized by elaborate consonant systems
- ^ Characterized by glottal stops
- ^ Often included in the Mesoamerican sprachbund
- ^ Characterized by SOV word order and postpositions
- ^ Characterized by VO word order (instead of SOV
- ^ Characterized by SOV word order and elaborate suffixing