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neurotransmitter systems

[edit]
Neurotransmitter systems
System Origin [1] Effects[1]
Noradrenaline system locus coeruleus
  • arousal
  • reward
Lateral tegmental field
Dopamine system dopamine pathways: motor system, reward, cognition, endocrine, nausea
Serotonin system caudal dorsal raphe nucleus Increase (introversion), mood, satiety, body temperature and sleep, while decreasing nociception.
rostral dorsal raphe nucleus
Cholinergic system pontomesencephalotegmental complex
basal optic nucleus of Meynert
medial septal nucleus


Category Name Abbreviation Metabotropic Ionotropic
Small: Amino acids Aspartate - -
Neuropeptides N-Acetylaspartylglutamate NAAG Metabotropic glutamate receptors; selective agonist of mGluR3 -
Small: Amino acids Glutamate (glutamic acid) Glu Metabotropic glutamate receptor NMDA receptor, Kainate receptor, AMPA receptor
Small: Amino acids Gamma-aminobutyric acid GABA GABAB receptor GABAA receptor, GABAC receptor
Small: Amino acids Glycine Gly - Glycine receptor
Small: Acetylcholine Acetylcholine Ach Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Dopamine DA Dopamine receptor -
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) NE Adrenergic receptor -
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Epinephrine (adrenaline) Epi Adrenergic receptor -
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Octopamine - -
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Tyramine -
Small: Monoamine (Trp) Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) 5-HT Serotonin receptor, all but 5-HT3 5-HT3
Small: Monoamine (Trp) Melatonin Mel Melatonin receptor -
Small: Monoamine (His) Histamine H Histamine receptor -
PP: Gastrins Gastrin - -
PP: Gastrins Cholecystokinin CCK Cholecystokinin receptor -
PP: Neurohypophyseals Vasopressin Vasopressin receptor -
PP: Neurohypophyseals Oxytocin Oxytocin receptor -
PP: Neurohypophyseals Neurophysin I - -
PP: Neurohypophyseals Neurophysin II - -
PP: Neuropeptide Y Neuropeptide Y NY Neuropeptide Y receptor -
PP: Neuropeptide Y Pancreatic polypeptide PP - -
PP: Neuropeptide Y Peptide YY PYY - -
PP: Opioids Corticotropin (adrenocorticotropic hormone) ACTH Corticotropin receptor -
PP: Opioids Dynorphin - -
PP: Opioids Endorphin - -
PP: Opioids Enkephaline - -
PP: Secretins Secretin Secretin receptor -
PP: Secretins Motilin Motilin receptor -
PP: Secretins Glucagon Glucagon receptor -
PP: Secretins Vasoactive intestinal peptide VIP Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor -
PP: Secretins Growth hormone-releasing factor GRF - -
PP: Somtostatins Somatostatin Somatostatin receptor -
SS: Tachykinins Neurokinin A - -
SS: Tachykinins Neurokinin B - -
SS: Tachykinins Substance P - -
PP: Other Bombesin - -
PP: Other Gastrin releasing peptide GRP - -
Gas Nitric oxide NO - -
Gas Carbon monoxide CO - -
Other Anandamide AEA Cannabinoid receptor -
Other Adenosine triphosphate ATP P2Y12 P2X receptor

hypothalamic nuclei

[edit]

[2][3][4]

Hypothalamic nuclei
Region Area Nucleus Function[5]
Anterior Medial Medial preoptic nucleus
Supraoptic nucleus (SO)
Paraventricular nucleus (PV)
Anterior hypothalamic nucleus (AH)
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SC)
Lateral Lateral preoptic nucleus
Lateral nucleus (LT)
Part of supraoptic nucleus (SO)
Tuberal Medial Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DM)
  • GI stimulation
Ventromedial nucleus (VM)
Arcuate nucleus (AR)
Lateral Lateral nucleus (LT)
Lateral tuberal nuclei
Posterior Medial Mammillary nuclei (part of mammillary bodies) (MB)
Posterior nucleus (PN)
Lateral Lateral nucleus (LT)


primary hypothalamic hormones

[edit]
Name Other Names Abbreviations Location Function
Corticotropin-releasing hormone Corticotropin-releasing factor, Corticoliberin CRH, CRF parvocellular neuroendocrine neurons in the paraventricular nucleus with vasopressin, stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH
Dopamine Prolactin-inhibiting hormone DA, PIH neuroendocrine neurons of the arcuate nucleus inhibits secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone Luteinising-hormone releasing hormone GnRH, LHRH neuroendocrine neurons in the medial preoptic and arcuate nuclei stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH
Growth hormone-releasing hormone Growth-hormone-releasing factor, somatocrinin GHRH, GHRF, GRF arcuate nucleus neuroendocrine neurons stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete growth hormone
Melatonin suprachiasmatic nucleus
Somatostatin Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone, Somatotropin release-inhibiting factor SS, GHIH, SRIF neuroendocrine neurons of the periventricular nucleus inhibits secretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone Thyrotropin-releasing factor, Thyroliberin, Protirelin TRH, TRF parvocellular neuroendocrine neurons in the paraventricular and anterior hypothalamic nuclei stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete TSH

Important human hormones

[edit]

Spelling is not uniform for many hormones. Current North American and international usage is estrogen, gonadotropin, while British usage retains the Greek diphthong in oestrogen and favors the earlier spelling gonadotrophin (from trophē ‘nourishment, sustenance’ rather than tropē ‘turning, change’.

Structure Name Abbrev-
iation
Tissue Cells Mechanism Target Tissue Effect
amine - tryptophan Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) pineal gland pinealocyte antioxidant and causes drowsiness
amine - tryptophan Serotonin 5-HT CNS, GI tract enterochromaffin cell Controls mood, appetite, and sleep
amine - tyrosine Thyroxine (or tetraiodothyronine) (a thyroid hormone) T4 thyroid gland thyroid epithelial cell direct less active form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines,

affect protein synthesis

amine - tyrosine Triiodothyronine (a thyroid hormone) T3 thyroid gland thyroid epithelial cell direct potent form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines,

affect protein synthesis

amine - tyrosine (cat) Epinephrine (or adrenaline) EPI adrenal medulla chromaffin cell Fight-or-flight response:

Boosts the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells. dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g. digestion) Suppress immune system

amine - tyrosine (cat) Norepinephrine (or noradrenaline) NRE adrenal medulla chromaffin cell Fight-or-flight response:

Boosts the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells. Increase skeletal muscle readiness.

amine - tyrosine (cat) Dopamine (or prolactin inhibiting hormone DPM, PIH or DA kidney, hypothalamus Chromaffin cells in kidney
Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus in hypothalamus
Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Inhibit release of prolactin and TRH from anterior pituitary
peptide Antimullerian hormone (or mullerian inhibiting factor or hormone) AMH testes Sertoli cell Inhibit release of prolactin and TRH from anterior pituitary
peptide Adiponectin Acrp30 adipose tissue
peptide Adrenocorticotropic hormone (or corticotropin) ACTH anterior pituitary corticotrope cAMP synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and androgens) in adrenocortical cells
peptide Angiotensinogen and angiotensin AGT liver IP3 vasoconstriction

release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.

peptide Antidiuretic hormone (or vasopressin, arginine vasopressin) ADH posterior pituitary Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons in hypothalamus
Magnocellular neurosecretory cells in posterior pituitary
varies retention of water in kidneys
moderate vasoconstriction
Release ACTH in anterior pituitary
peptide Atrial-natriuretic peptide (or atriopeptin) ANP heart cGMP
peptide Calcitonin CT thyroid gland parafollicular cell cAMP Construct bone, reduce blood Ca2+
peptide Cholecystokinin CCK duodenum Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas

Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant

peptide Corticotropin-releasing hormone CRH hypothalamus cAMP Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
peptide Erythropoietin EPO kidney Extraglomerular mesangial cells Stimulate erythrocyte production
peptide Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH anterior pituitary gonadotrope cAMP In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary.

In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes

peptide Gastrin GRP stomach, duodenum G cell Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
peptide Ghrelin stomach P/D1 cell Stimulate appetite,

secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland

peptide Glucagon GCG pancreas alpha cells cAMP glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver

increases blood glucose level

peptide Gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH hypothalamus IP3 Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
peptide Growth hormone-releasing hormone GHRH hypothalamus IP3 Release GH from anterior pituitary
peptide Human chorionic gonadotropin hCG placenta syncytiotrophoblast cells cAMP promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy

Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.

peptide Human placental lactogen HPL placenta increase production of insulin and IGF-1

increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance

peptide Growth hormone GH or hGH anterior pituitary somatotropes stimulates growth and cell reproduction

Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver

peptide Inhibin testes, ovary, fetus Sertoli cells of testes
granulosa cells of ovary
trophoblasts in fetus
anterior pituitary Inhibit production of FSH
peptide Insulin INS pancreas beta cells tyrosine kinase Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood

intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects

peptide Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) IGF liver Hepatocytes tyrosine kinase insulin-like effects

regulate cell growth and development

peptide Leptin LEP adipose tissue decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
peptide Luteinizing hormone LH anterior pituitary gonadotropes cAMP In female: ovulation

In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone

peptide Melanocyte stimulating hormone MSH or α-MSH anterior pituitary/pars intermedia Melanotroph cAMP melanogenesis by melanocytes in skin and hair
peptide Orexin hypothalamus wakefulness and increased energy expenditure, increased appetite
peptide Oxytocin OXT posterior pituitary Magnocellular neurosecretory cells IP3 release breast milk

Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people.[7] and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness) [8].

peptide Parathyroid hormone PTH parathyroid gland parathyroid chief cell cAMP increase blood Ca2+: *indirectly stimulate osteoclasts

(Slightly) decrease blood phosphate:

  • (decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones
  • activate vitamin D)
peptide Prolactin PRL anterior pituitary, uterus lactotrophs of anterior pituitary
Decidual cells of uterus
milk production in mammary glands
sexual gratification after sexual acts
peptide Relaxin RLN uterus Decidual cells Unclear in humans
peptide Secretin SCT duodenum S cell Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands

Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice

peptide Somatostatin SRIF hypothalamus, islets of Langerhans, gastrointestinal system delta cells in islets
Neuroendocrince cells of the Periventricular nucleus in hypothalamus
Inhibit release of GH and TRH from anterior pituitary
Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon in gastrointestinal system
Lowers rate of gastric emptying

Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine [9]
Inhibit release of insulin from beta cells [10]
Inhibit release of glucagon from beta cells [10]
Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.

peptide Thrombopoietin TPO liver, kidney, striated muscle Myocytes megakaryocytes produce platelets[11]
peptide Thyroid-stimulating hormone (or thyrotropin) TSH anterior pituitary thyrotropes cAMP thyroid gland secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
peptide Thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH hypothalamus Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons IP3 anterior pituitary Release thyroid-stimulating hormone (primarily)
Stimulate prolactin release
steroid - glu. Cortisol adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells) direct Stimulation of gluconeogenesis

Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive

steroid - min. Aldosterone adrenal cortex (zona glomerulosa) direct Increase blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys (primarily)

Potassium and H+ secretion in kidney.

steroid - sex (and) Testosterone testes Leydig cells direct Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength,

Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.

steroid - sex (and) Dehydroepiandrosterone DHEA testes, ovary, kidney Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells of kidney
theca cells of ovary
Leydig cellss of testes
direct Virilization, anabolic
steroid - sex (and) Androstenedione adrenal glands, gonads direct Substrate for estrogen
steroid - sex (and) Dihydrotestosterone DHT multiple direct
steroid - sex (est) Estradiol E2 females: ovary, males testes females: granulosa cells, males: Sertoli cell direct Females:

Structural:

Protein synthesis:

  • increase hepatic production of binding proteins

Coagulation:

Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance:

Gastrointestinal tract:

  • reduce bowel motility
  • increase cholesterol in bile

Melanin:

Cancer: support hormone-sensitive breast cancers [12] Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.

Lung function:

Males: Prevent apoptosis of germ cells[14]

steroid - sex (est) Estrone ovary granulosa cells, Adipocytes direct
steroid - sex (est) Estriol placenta syncytiotrophoblast direct
steroid - sex (pro) Progesterone ovary, adrenal glands, placenta (when pregnant) Granulosa cells theca cells of ovary direct Support pregnancy[15]:

Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm. Inhibit immune response, e.g. towards the human embryo. Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[15] Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids.

Other: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation[16] Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus) Antiinflammatory Reduce gall-bladder activity[17] Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy. Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Relsilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament and skin Healing by regulating collagen Nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen.

sterol Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) skin/proximal tubule of kidneys direct Active form of vitamin D3

Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH

sterol Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D3) skin/proximal tubule of kidneys direct Inactive form of Vitamin D3
eicosanoid Prostaglandins PG seminal vesicle
eicosanoid Leukotrienes LT white blood cells
eicosanoid Prostacyclin PGI2 endothelium
eicosanoid Thromboxane TXA2 platelets
Prolactin releasing hormone PRH hypothalamus Release prolactin from anterior pituitary
Lipotropin PRH anterior pituitary Corticotropes lipolysis and steroidogenesis,
stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
Brain natriuretic peptide BNP heart Cardiac myocytes (To a minor degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by:

reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats

Neuropeptide Y NPY Stomach increased food intake and decreased physical activity
Histamine Stomach ECL cells stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin Stomach X cells Smooth muscle contraction of stomach [18]
Pancreatic polypeptide Pancreas PP cells Unknown
Renin Kidney Juxtaglomerular cells Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Enkephalin Kidney Chromaffin cells Regulate pain
  1. ^ a b Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. page 474 for noradrenaline system, page 476 for dopamine system, page 480 for serotonin system and page 483 for cholinergic system. ISBN 0-443-07145-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  2. ^ Diagram of Nuclei (psycheducation.org)
  3. ^ Diagram of Nuclei (universe-review.ca)
  4. ^ Diagram of Nuclei (utdallas.edu)
  5. ^ Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Guyton Eight Edition
  6. ^ Walter F., PhD. Boron. Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approaoch. Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. Page 840
  7. ^ Kosfeld M et al. (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673-676. PDF PMID 15931222
  8. ^ Scientific American Mind, "Rhythm and Blues"; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft
  9. ^ http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/somatostatin.html Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin
  10. ^ a b Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.
  11. ^ Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716.
  12. ^ Hormonal Therapy
  13. ^ Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154 15298854 url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154. {{cite journal}}: Check |pmid= value (help); Missing pipe in: |pmid= (help)
  14. ^ Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L. Estradiol Acts as a Germ Cell Survival Factor in the Human Testis in vitro. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2006;85:2057-67 PMID 10843196
  15. ^ a b Placental Hormones
  16. ^ Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.
  17. ^ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res. 45 (6): 505–12. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0. PMID 3184927.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats Journal of Smooth Muscle Research Vol. 41 (2005) , No. 1 35-47. Kazuki Endo1), Takayuki Matsumoto1), Tsuneo Kobayashi1), Yutaka Kasuya1) and Katsuo Kamata1)