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Electric light bulbs imitating the shape of candle flames

A skeuomorph (also spelled skiamorph, /ˈskjuːəˌmɔːrf, ˈskjuːoʊ-/)[1][2] is a derivative object that retains ornamental design cues (attributes) from structures that were necessary in the original.[3] Skeuomorphs are typically used to make something new feel familiar in an effort to speed understanding and acclimation. They employ elements that, while essential to the original object, serve no pragmatic purpose in the new system. Examples include pottery embellished with imitation rivets reminiscent of similar pots made of metal[4] and a software calendar that imitates the appearance of binding on a paper desk calendar.[5]

Definition and purpose

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The term skeuomorph is compounded from the Greek skeuos (σκεῦος), meaning "container or tool", and morphḗ (μορφή), meaning "shape". It has been applied to material objects since 1890.[6] With the advent of computer systems in the 1980s, skeuomorph is used to characterize the many "old fashioned" icons utilized in graphic user interfaces.[7]

A similar alternative definition of skeuomorph is "a physical ornament or design on an object made to resemble another material or technique".[citation needed] This definition is broader in scope, as it can be applied to design elements that still serve the same function as they did in a previous design.

Skeuomorphs may be deliberately employed to make a new look more familiar and comfortable or may be the result of cultural influences and norms on the designer. They may be the artistic expression on the part of the designer.[7] The usability researcher and academic Don Norman describes skeuomorphism in terms of cultural constraints: interactions with a system that are learned only through culture. Norman also popularized perceived affordances, where the user can tell what an object provides or does based on its appearance, which skeuomorphism can make easy.[8]

The concept of skeuomorphism overlaps with other design concepts. Mimesis is an imitation, coming directly from the Greek word.[9] Archetype is the original idea or model that is emulated, where the emulations can be skeuomorphic.[10] Skeuomorphism is parallel to, but different from, path dependence in technology, where an element's functional behavior is maintained even when the original reasons for its design no longer exist.

Physical examples

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Triglyph and guttae in the Doric order; traditionally seen as recreating in stone functional features of the wooden Greek temples that preceded them.

Many features of wooden buildings were repeated in stone by the Ancient Greeks when they transitioned from wood to masonry construction. Decorative stone features in the Doric order of classical architecture in Greek temples such as triglyphs, mutules, guttae, and modillions are supposed to be derived from true structural and functional features of the early wooden temples. The triglyph and guttae are seen as recreating, respectively, the carved beam-ends and six wooden pegs driven in to secure the beam in place.[11][12][13]

Historically, high-status items such as the Minoans' elaborate and expensive silver cups were recreated for a wider market using pottery, a cheaper material. The exchange of shapes between metalwork and ceramics, often from the former to the latter, is near-constant in the history of the decorative arts. Sometimes pellets of clay are used to evoke the rivets of the metal originals.[14]

There is also evidence of skeuomorphism in material transitions. Leather and pottery often carry over features from the wooden counterparts of previous generations. Clay pottery has also been found bearing rope-shaped protrusions, pointing to craftsmen seeking familiar shapes and processes while working with new materials.[12] Another example is the tiny, non-functional handle on glass maple syrup bottles, which evoke stoneware jug handles.[15] In this context, skeuomorphs exist as traits sought in other objects, either for their social desirability or psychological comforts.[7]

In the modern era, cheaper plastic items often attempt to mimic more expensive wooden and metal products,[16] though they are only skeuomorphic if new ornamentation references the original functionality,[17] such as molded screw heads in molded plastic items. Another well-known skeuomorph is the plastic Adirondack chair.[18] The lever on a mechanical slot machine, or "one-armed bandit", is a skeuomorphic throwback feature when it appears on a modern video slot machine, since it is no longer required to set physical mechanisms and gears into motion. Articles of clothing are also given skeuomorphic treatment; for example, faux buckles on certain strap shoes, such as Mary Janes for small children, which permit the retention of the original aesthetic.

Automotive design has historically been full of physical skeuomorphisms, such as the transformation from wooden framed and bodied early vehicles produced by coachworks to those which incorporated both functional wood and steel (referred to as "woodies") to, ultimately, simulated vinyl woodgrain cladding entirely for style by the 1960s. Other examples include thinly faux chrome-plated plastic components and imitation leather, gold, interior wood, pearl, or crystal jeweled elements. In The Design of Everyday Things, Don Norman notes that early automobiles were designed after horse-drawn carriages.[16] Indeed, the early automobile design Horsey Horseless even included a wooden horse head on the front to try to minimize scaring the real animals.[19] In the 1970s, opera windows and vinyl roofs on many luxury sedan cars similarly imitated carriage work from the horse and buggy era. As of 2019, most electric cars feature prominent front grilles, even though there is little need for intake of air to cool an absent internal combustion engine.[20]

Virtual examples

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Skeuomorph in user interface (hardware-like user interface) with emulating control knobs for manipulating digital audio in the Redstair GEARcompressor Audio Unit-Plugin

Many computer programs have a skeuomorphic graphical user interface that emulates the aesthetics of physical objects. Examples include a digital contact list resembling a Rolodex,[21] and IBM's 1998 RealThings package.[22] A more extreme example is found in some music synthesis and audio processing software packages, which closely emulate physical musical instruments and audio equipment complete with buttons and dials.[23] On a smaller scale, the icons of GUIs may remain skeuomorphic representations of physical objects, such as an image of a physical paper folder to represent computer files[16] in the desktop metaphor. This is even the case for items that are no longer directly applicable to the task they represent (such as a drawing of a floppy disk to represent "save").

Apple Inc., while under the direction of Steve Jobs, was known for its wide usage of skeuomorphic designs in various applications. This changed after Jobs's death when Scott Forstall, described as "the most vocal and high-ranking proponent of the visual design style favored by Mr. Jobs", resigned. Apple designer Jonathan Ive took over some of Forstall's responsibilities and had "made his distaste for the visual ornamentation in Apple's mobile software known within the company".[24] With the announcement of iOS 7 at WWDC in 2013, Apple officially shifted from skeuomorphism to a more simplified design, thus beginning the so-called "death of skeuomorphism" at Apple.[25] Skeuomorphism is a key component of Frutiger Aero, an Internet aesthetic derived from mid-2000s user interface designs.[26]

Microsoft's shift from skeuomorphic to flat design

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Microsoft also shifted to a flat design approach. In 2012, Microsoft removed drop shadows, gradients, textures, and ornamentation[27]. Windows 8 embraced a minimalist design that predominantly focused on different styles and sized tiles. This oversimplification received some initial backlash, making it less intuitive to follow. The number of tiles in the start menu did not noticeably improve the usability of the application and reduced the level of familiarity previously retained through skeuomorphic elements.

Other virtual skeuomorphs do not employ literal images of some physical object; but rather allude to ritual human heuristics or heuristic motifs, such as slider bars that emulate linear potentiometers[23] and visual tabs that behave like physical tabbed file folders. Another example is the swiping hand gesture for turning the "pages" or screens of a tablet display.[28][29]

Virtual skeuomorphs can also be auditory. The shutter-click sound emitted by most camera phones when taking a picture is an auditory skeuomorph.[30] Another familiar example is the paper-crumpling sound when a document is trashed.[31]

In design

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Pushbutton telephone with imitation rotary dial

Retrofuturism incorporates visual motifs from old predictions of the future, especially visions of electro-industrialism.[clarification needed][32][failed verification] Skeuomorphic design is frequently incorporated in retrowave or synthwave illustrations. Skeuomorphic design is closely linked with metamodernism.

Skeuomorphic design seems to be preferred by older recipient groups, often referred to as "digital immigrants", while "digital natives" tend to favor flat design over skeuomorphisms. However, younger people are still able to understand the signifiers that skeuomorphic design employs. A better user experience could be measured for each respective design philosophy among digital natives and immigrants.[33]

The connection between UX Design and Skeuomorphic Design

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In the world of UX Design, skeuomorphs are supposed to enhance the functionality and intuitiveness of a user interface. Since the early 2010s[34], skeuomorphs have become popular in the digital design realm. Skeuomorphs leverage preexisting mental models[34] which is an important concept in UX Design. A mental model is a user's view of a system through their lenses. Mental models are typically governed by the surrounding environment. The human brain creates expectations, predictions, and decisions[35]. Compared to reality, the mental model adapts and a new belief is adopted. Mental models are important because they can change over time[35]. Understanding mental models can generate user insights that can be applied to designing relatable and user-friendly experiences. To emulate the natural environment, designs that incorporate 3D elements with perceived texture, color, patterns, sounds, and even animations can add to the appeal. By designing an interface that fits most user's mental models, designers can understand user pain points, needs, and motivations on a deeper level, which translates to more user-friendly designs. Skeuomorphs provided a way to meet business needs with empathy and creativity.

Arguments in favor of and against skeuomorphic design

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Arguments in favor

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An argument in favor of skeuomorphic design in digital devices is that signifiers to affordances help those familiar with the original item learn to use the digital version. Interaction paradigms for computer devices are culturally entrenched; proposals for change often spawn debate. Don Norman describes this process as a form of cultural heritage,[8] and credits skeuomorphism with easing transitions to newer technology, stating that it "gives comfort and makes learning easier" until the newer devices no longer need to resemble their predecessors.[16]

Compared to flat design, skeuomorphic design seems to facilitate a fast navigation through graphic user interfaces, because icons are more easily recognized and less abstract than their minimalistic counterparts found in flat design.[33]

Emotional Appeal
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Another advantage of skeuomorphic design is its emotional appeal[36]. By leveraging familiarity, users are drawn back to their memories and experiences[36] using a specific product. For example, the trash icon and the sound it makes when a file is dragged to the trash resembles the sound of trash being thrown in the trash can. This emotional connection allows the user to connect stronger with the emotional appeal which can translate to heightened fondness for a product. Pathos is the primary emotional appeal that is embedded in multiple products to attract users. Since skeuomorphs typically reflect a memory or experience, the pathos appears to be strong and the need for supporting elements and functions is not as necessary.  

Arguments against

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The arguments against virtual skeuomorphic design are that skeuomorphic interface elements are harder to operate and take up more screen space than standard interface elements, that this breaks operating system interface design standards, that it causes an inconsistent look and feel between applications,[37] that skeuomorphic interface elements rarely incorporate numeric input or feedback for accurately setting a value, that many users may have no experience with the original device being emulated, that skeuomorphic design can increase cognitive load with visual noise that after a few uses gives little or no value to the user, that skeuomorphic design limits creativity by grounding the user experience to physical counterparts,[38] and that skeuomorphic designs often do not accurately represent underlying system state or data types due to inappropriate mimesis. For example, an analog gauge interface may be read less precisely than a digital one.

Violations of Nielsen's 10 heuristics by Skeuomorphic Design

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To understand the standard of modern-day design, Nielson's 10 heuristics[39] are commonly followed design principles to abide by. Skeuomorphs violate some of these design principles such as consistency and standards, recognizing, diagnosing, and recovering from errors, and aesthetic and minimalist design[39].

Skeuomorphic designs can have inconsistencies across multiple platforms[39]. For instance, when a user opens an application on their mobile phone, the design elements can be structured to create a skeuomorphic effect and still create an intuitive user interface. However, if these design elements are drastically different on a desktop interface, the user may have a difficult time navigating through the desktop interface due to the lack of consistency between mobile and desktop platforms. To combat this, it is important to establish a design system with standard naming conventions, fonts, font sizes, button designs, color schemes, animations, and icon sets. A standardized design system will enforce consistency across all platforms and help designers understand the purpose behind each design element. Since a design system has a preset of design elements, designers have to justify their reason behind using certain elements. Backed by market research, this justification process improves clarity and focus while designing for users. This helps to improve learnability through internal and external consistency[39]. Internal consistency is having an established design system as mentioned above. External consistency refers to following common industry standards. Following consistency in general can lead to a greater brand image. Adhering to branding guidelines can align the mission of a business with its image more accurately and professionally.

Helping users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors[39] is also another design principle skeuomorphic designs can blur. Error messages are typically designed to be plain and simple, such as bold, red text[39]. Technical jargon is not advised and the error messages that are noticeable and recognizable are more receptive by users. By emulating the real-world environment closely, designs can be created to display complex error messages rather than following a more simple route. For instance, a banking app sends an error message to a user that a bank transfer is insufficient by referencing financial vernacular can be overwhelming and unhelpful to a user. Instead, providing a simple error that informs the user that their transfer was not completed and suggesting steps to resolve the issue would provide more actionable next steps for the user.

The transition to flat design has simplified the aesthetic of user interface design, an aspect skeuomorphic designs can struggle with if not implemented properly. Maintaining minimalism in content and visual design can reduce cognitive load and distraction. Working backward from the end results of the design and focusing on a goal can create clear intentions by performing less work. The 80/20 rule (Pareto Principle), states that 80% of outcomes comes from 20% of results[40] is a rule that forces designers to think practically and understand which aspects of the design matter the most to the user. To aid this, usability testing and analysis of KPIs and user heatmaps provide evidence and confirm the design rationale behind designs and allow designers to iteratively design to create the best possible outcome.

Neumorphism

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The culmination of skeuomorphism and flat design has led to a new concept called neumorphism. Some examples of neumorphic elements include buttons raised sharply from the surface through a drop shadow or a stroke[41]. Other examples place skeuomorphic UI elements inside the background[42], creating a depth effect and an affordance at the same time. Colors also play a role in internal and external shadows and depth. Color can help enhance the visual effect of shadows and depth perception[42] by modifying opacity and adding strokes. The three-dimensional form from skeuomorphism is retained along with the simplicity of flat design. Rounded corners are also another crucial component of neumorphism that can be inviting, soft, [42], and visually appealing. Rounded corners can tie the design together and create seamless transitions between designs. This subtle mix of design styles allows neuromorphic design to take advantage of intuitive and seamless user interface design. Understanding where neuromorphic designs can be utilized can help businesses keep up with modern trends.

Impact of skeuomorphic designs on different age populations

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In a recent study conducted by Xi and Wu, they were researching the difference in perception between minimalism and skeuomorphic design. They found a correlation between skeuomorph design and increased experienced difficulty[43]. Most users found that flat designs were more usable[43]. The researchers measured the different design styles based on difficulty to execute a specific task. It was noticed that age[43] may be an influential factor. Older populations tend to not be familiar with different technologies and their decreased visual acuity[43] and reduced cognitive function[43]. After conducting another skeuomorphic icon study for individuals between the ages of 65-90, it was concluded that the degree of realism is positively correlated with both preference and understandability[43]. Middle aged populations preferred a flat design[43] whereas novice users and older users experienced more challenges using skeuomorph interfaces than flat interfaces[43]. Younger populations tend to be more fond of flat design due to visual aesthetics, status, and positive emotions[43] compared to skeuomorphic design. The researchers restate this preference to skeuominimalist designs[43], since familiarity and modern design appeals to the younger generation. Skeuomorphic designs have evolved according to different visual preferences for different populations.

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See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ "Skeuomorph". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2019-12-27.
  2. ^ "Skeuomorph". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 2016-01-22.
  3. ^ Basalla, George (1988). The Evolution of Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 107. ISBN 0-521-29681-1.
  4. ^ "Skeuomorph". dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
  5. ^ Thompson, Clive (2012-01-31). "Clive Thompson on Analog Designs in the Digital Age". Wired. Vol. 20, no. 2. Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
  6. ^ March, H. Colley (1890). Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society. The Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society. p. 187. Archived from the original on 2018-02-02.
  7. ^ a b c Gessler, Nicholas. "Skeuomorphs and Cultural Algorithms". Archived from the original on 24 June 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
  8. ^ a b Norman, Donald. "Affordances and Design". Archived from the original on 2012-11-20. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
  9. ^ Janusheske, Jeffrey. "Thesis: Mimesis to Skeuomorph?". Archived from the original on 2013-02-15. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
  10. ^ Sen, Rahul (5 May 2010). "Archetypes and Their Use in Mobile UX". Archived from the original on 2012-12-26. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
  11. ^ Vickers, Michael; Gill, David (1996). Artful Crafts: Ancient Greek Silverware and Pottery. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-198-15070-9.
  12. ^ a b Manby, T.G. (1995). Unbaked Urns of Rudely Shape: essays on British and Irish pottery for Ian Longworth. Oxford: Oxbow Books and others. pp. 81–84. ISBN 0946897948.
  13. ^ Summerson, John, The Classical Language of Architecture, pp. 128, 133, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World of Art series, ISBN 0500201773
  14. ^ Knappet, Carl. "Photographs, Skeuomorphs and Marionettes". Archived from the original on 2013-02-01.
  15. ^ Jen Messier (21 Jun 2012). "Why Do Maple Syrup Containers Have Tiny Handles?". Brooklyn Brainery. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
  16. ^ a b c d Norman, Don (2013). The Design of Everyday Things: Revised & Expanded Edition. Basic Books. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-465-05065-9.
  17. ^ Bullock, Alan (1999), The Norton Dictionary of Modern Thought, W. W. Norton & Company, pp. 795–796, ISBN 978-0-393-04696-0
  18. ^ Winchester, Simon; Lederer, Richard (2006). "Foreword". In McKean, Erin (ed.). Totally weird and wonderful words. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195312120. OCLC 70060979.
  19. ^ Alex Davies (10 Feb 2015). "Well That Didn't Work: The 1899 Car With a Full-Size Wooden Horse Head Stuck to the Front". WIRED. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
  20. ^ Torchinsky, Jason (29 November 2012). "Why Do All These Electric Cars Have Grilles?". Jalopnik. Vox Media. Retrieved 2019-04-05.
  21. ^ Worstall, Tim. "The Real Problem With Apple: Skeuomorphism In iOS". Forbes. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  22. ^ Mullay (April 1998). "IBM RealThings". CHI 98 conference summary on Human factors in computing systems. ACM Press. pp. 13–14. doi:10.1145/286498.286505. ISBN 1-58113-028-7.
  23. ^ a b G.F. (2012-11-08). "User interfaces: Skeu you". The Economist. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  24. ^ Wingfield, Nick; Bilton, Nick (2012-10-31). "Apple Shake-Up Could Lead to Design Shift". The New York Times. CLXII (55, 941). Archived from the original on 2012-11-04. Retrieved 2012-11-05.
  25. ^ Evans, Claire (2013-06-11). "A Eulogy for Skeuomorphism". Motherboard. Archived from the original on 2013-06-13. Retrieved 2013-06-11.
  26. ^ Bramley, Ellie Violet (2023-12-14). "Frutiger Aero: the Windows screen saver design trend taking TikTok by storm". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-07-19.
  27. ^ https://www.figma.com/resource-library/what-is-skeuomorphism/
  28. ^ "An E-Book UI That Lets You Flip Digital Pages, Just Like A Real Book". Co.Design. 31 May 2012. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  29. ^ Baker, Justin (20 November 2017). "Skeuomorphic Design — A controversial UX approach that is making a comeback". Muzli – Design Inspiration. Medium. Retrieved 2019-04-05.
  30. ^ McNeil, Joanne (14 July 2011). "Skeuomorphic Sounds: Digital Camera Shutter Clicks and Car Door Clunks". Rhizome. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  31. ^ "What Should a Nine-Thousand-Pound Electric Vehicle Sound Like?". The New Yorker. August 2022.
  32. ^ "21 examples of skeuomorphism". Popicon. Retrieved 2019-04-05.
  33. ^ a b Spiliotopoulos, Konstantinos; Rigou, Maria; Sirmakessis, Spiros (2018-06-04). "A Comparative Study of Skeuomorphic and Flat Design from a UX Perspective". Multimodal Technologies and Interaction. 2 (2): 31. doi:10.3390/mti2020031. ISSN 2414-4088.
  34. ^ a b "Skeuomorphism". Nielsen Norman Group. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  35. ^ a b "Mental Models and User Experience Design". Nielsen Norman Group. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  36. ^ a b "What Is Skeuomorphism? Pros, Cons, Evolution, Examples". dovetail.com. 2023-04-28. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  37. ^ Carr, Austin. "Will Apple's Tacky Software-Design Philosophy Cause A Revolt?". Fast Company. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012. The issue is two-fold: first, that traditional visual metaphors no longer translate to modern users; and second, that excessive digital imitation of real-world objects creates confusion among users.
  38. ^ Sharp, Helen; Rogers, Yvonne; Preece, Jenny (2007). Interaction Design: Beyond Human–Computer Interaction (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 62.
  39. ^ a b c d e f "10 Usability Heuristics for User Interface Design". Nielsen Norman Group. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  40. ^ "The 80-20 Rule (aka Pareto Principle): What It Is, How It Works". Investopedia. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  41. ^ "What Is Neumorphism and Why Should Designers Care?". Built In. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  42. ^ a b c "Neumorphism: The art of shadow and light". www.justinmind.com. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g h i j chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/file:///Users/shivpat/Desktop/EBSCO-FullText-2024-11-13.pdf

General references

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  • Flecker, M., "An Age of Intermateriality: Skeuomorphism and Intermateriality between the Late Republic and Early Empire", in: A. Haug – A. Hielscher – T. Lauritsen (Hrsg.), Materiality in Roman Art and Architecture: Aesthetics, Semantics and Function (Berlin 2021) 265–283 (Open Access).
  • Freeth, C. M., & Taylor, T. F. (2001). Skeuomorphism in Scythia: Deference and Emulation, Olbia ta antichnii svit. Kiev: British Academy; Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. p. 150.
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