User:Savannah Shivers/sandbox

Article Evaluation: The soul

• Mostly everything is related to the topic, but a few things distracted me. For example, the heading Zoroastrianism distracted me because it said see the main article and did not give any additional information. I was not sure what Zoroastrianism was or how it related to the soul.
• The article is neutral. This article educated me on how different religions and philosophers, and sciences defined the soul and their different viewpoints.
• None of the viewpoints are underrepresented or overrepresented, although some viewpoints have more information than others. For example, the Aristotle section is very long, but very helpful.
• The links worked for the citations that I checked and the sources supported the claims in the article.
• The Etymology section does not have any sources and the Judaism section has too many primary sources. The Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis section does not have very many reliable sources. Other than that, for the most part, each fact is referenced with an appropriate and reliable references. The information generally comes from religious or scientific encyclopedias, articles, and books. These sources are mostly neutral.
• Some of the information is out of date, but some of it is really recent. A universal definition of the soul for each section (religion, philosophy, and science) could be added.
• Religious, philosophical, and scientific debates about the soul are taking place on the Talk page. People are really disagreeing about how to represent, define, and explain the soul.
• It is rated as a B-class article and a level-3 vital article in Philosophy. It is a part of a lot of WikiProjects: Religion, Judaism, Buddhism, Taoism, Spirituality, Sikhism, Christianity/Latter Day Saints, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Philosophy, Alternative medicine, Bahai Faith, and Vital.
• Wikipedia covers the soul more comprehensively through a lot of different perspectives, while in class we just talked about the soul through a philosophical perspective.

Possible Articles that I will Edit for my Project

1. Boundary Extension (BE)

Boundary Extension

How I would improve the article:

• pictures and diagrams of boundary extension/demonstration of BE
• describe the effects of BE with a variety of different stimuli (simple and complex photos, simple and complex objects, occluded objects, line-drawings, etc.)
• show pictures of different BE stimuli
• explain the possible causes of BE
• explain the effects of BE
• explain how BE affects different age groups
• explain mulitmodal BE (visual and haptic)
• explain why BE is interesting/the purpose of BE/why we should study it
• explain important vocabulary about BE (source monitoring error, reality monitoring, perceptual schema, visual memory, auditory perception, etc.)
• detail where and how BE might happen in real life
• explain the effects of BE in people who have damaged brains in some way (autism, amnesia, etc.)
• explain the evolution of how cognitive psychologists study BE/how BE has evolved over time

I plan to add diagrams explaining and illustrating the boundary extension phenomenon. I also plan to describe and explain boundary extension and its effects as holistically as possible regarding different stimuli, causes, and age groups. I will explain how boundary extension interacts with other senses, why it is interesting, and how boundary extension might be applicable to real life. It is also important to explain the evolution of how boundary extension has been studied over time and how it affects people who have damaged brains.

References

Aude, O. (2010). Visual scene perception. In E. Bruce Goldstein (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Perception (pp. 1111-1116). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Bertamini, M., Jones, L. A., Spooner, A., & Hecht, H. (2005). The role of magnification, object size, context, and binocular information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 1288-1307. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.31.6.1288

Chapman, P., Ropar, D., Mitchell, P., & Ackroyd, K. (2005). Understanding boundary extension errors in picture memory among adults and boys with and without asperger’s syndrome. Visual Cognition, 12, 1265-1290. Doi:10.1080/13506280444000508

Dickinson, C. A., & LaCombe, D. J. (2014). Objects influence the shape of remembered views: Examining global and local aspects of boundary extension. Perception, 43, 731-753.   doi:10.1068/p7631

Gagnier, K. M. (2010). Rethinking boundary extension: the role of source monitoring in scene memory (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.            (Accession No. 854499379)

Gottesman C., V. & Intraub, H. (2002). Surface construal and the mental representation of scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28,     589-599. doi:10.1037//0096-1523.28.3.589

Hubbard, T. L., Hutchinson, J. L. & Courtney, J. R. (2010). Boundary extension: Findings and theories. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 1467-1494.      doi:10.1080/17470210903511236

Intraub, H. (2005). Visual scene perception. In L. Nadel (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (pp. 524-527). John Wiley & Sons Ltd., UK.

Intraub, H., & Dickinson, C. A. (2008). False memory 1/20^th of a second later: What the early onset of boundary extension reveals about perception. Psychological Science, 19, 1007-     1014. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02192.x

Intraub, H., Gottesman, C. V., & Bills, A. J. (1998). Effects of perceiving and imagining scenes on memory for pictures.  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and            Cognition, 24, 186-201. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.24.1.186

Intraub, H., Morelli, F., & Gagnier, K. M. (2015). Visual, haptic, and bimodal scene perception: evidence for a unitary representation. Cognition, 138, 132-147.    doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2015.01.010

Intraub, H., & Richardson, M. (1989). Wide-angle memories of close-up scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 179-187.           doi:10.1037/0278-7393.15.2.179

Kreindel, E., & Intraub, H. (2016). Anticipatory scene representation in preschool children’s recall and recognition memory. Developmental Science, 1-18. doi:10.1111/desc.12444

Multhaup, K. S., Munger, M. P., & Smith, K. C. (2016). Boundary extension is sensitive to hand position in young and older adults. Journal of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological and Social Sciences.  Advance online publication. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw011

Munger, M. P., & Multhaup, K. S., (2016). No imagination effect on boundary extension. Memory and Cognition, 44, 73-88. doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0541-3

Quinn, P. C., & Intraub, H. (2007). Perceiving ‘outside the box’ occurs early in development: Evidence for boundary extension in three-to seven-month-old infants. Child Development,         78, 324-334. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01000.x

Safer, M. A., Christianson, S., Autry, M. W., & Österlund, K. (1998). Tunnel memory for traumatic events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 99-117. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-            0720(199804)12:2<99::AID-ACP509>3.0.CO;2-7

Spanò, G., Intraub, H., & Edgin, J. O. (2017).  Testing the ‘boundaries’ of boundary extension: Anticipatory scene representation across development and disorder. Hippocampus, 27,   726-739. doi:10.1002/hipo.22728

2. Reminiscence

Reminiscence

How I would improve the article:

• add a diagram for a reminiscence bump
• add in a few reminiscence studies and results
• add examples of what people typically reminisce about
• add in what causes reminiscence (external or internal cues)
• explain what types of memory are related to reminiscing (episodic memory, semantic memory, autobiographical memory, etc.)
• benefits/drawbacks of reminiscing
• if people change what they reminisce about as they age
• how reminiscing contributes to one's life story
• how reminiscing can be applied to everyday life
• why reminiscing is important

Boundary Extension

Boundary extension is a cognitive psychology phenomenon and an error of commission in which people remember more of a scene or boundary than was originally present in the original picture. Boundary extension is typically studied using a recognition memory test where participants are shown a series of photos and then shown new photos that are either the same or have been altered in some way and asked if they are the same or different from the original photos.  For example, people are typically presented with either a close-angle photo, which shows less of a picture scene, or a wide-angle photo, which shows more of a picture scene, during the study phase where the participant tries to memorize the picture and then a close or wide-angle photo during the test phase where the participant is tested on the original photos. Consequently, there are four different viewing conditions that people could experience the photos in: close-close, wide-wide, close-wide, or wide-close.  If the participants respond that the new photos with more background are the same as the original photos, then they are displaying boundary extension because they are extending the boundary of the original photo.

How psychologists have studied boundary extension has evolved over time.  For example, psychologists first studied this phenomenon by asking participants to draw scenes from memory. But after many studies, researchers moved to studying boundary extension through a picture recognition memory task which is the more widely used way to study boundary extension currently.

Boundary extension occurs with a variety of stimuli.  For example, boundary extension happens with simple and complex photos, simple and complex objects, line-drawings, and photos and objects that have been zoomed in or out varying degrees.  Multimodal boundary extension also happens with both the haptic and auditory senses. Boundary extension occurs with a variety of ages as well.  For example, boundary extension is apparent very early in life in 3 to 4-month old infants and for children. College students are susceptible to boundary extension and so are older adults. Boundary extension even happens with people who have disorders such as people with Down Syndrome.

Because boundary extension is so universal regarding different altered stimuli and age groups, there are many possible causes, examples, and scenarios of boundary extension.  For example, people tend to draw entire scenes instead of what was just in the picture. Also, people naturally add more background into scenes regardless of whether they are just looking at the scene or drawing it.  Essentially, what is just beyond the current boundaries becomes a part of the internal representation of the recalled scene in a person’s mind. In addition, many cognitive mechanisms influence boundary extension such as a source monitoring error and a perceptual schema.

Vocabulary Related to Boundary Extension

Source Monitoring Error

A source monitoring error can be defined as the inability to recall where information came from, especially when trying to recall the source of photos.  For example, participants in boundary extension experiments often tend to say that the boundary-extended test photos came from the study pictures rather than recognizing that they altered the photos in their minds to cause boundary extension, and these new photos that they are trying to remember were self-generated.

Perceptual Schema

A perceptual schema is a cognitive phenomenon and an internal mental representation of a scene that is created by oneself using prior knowledge and details of the world. Perceptual schemas often form when a person sees a new image because it can be a way to process the image using prior knowledge of other images that one has viewed and processed in the past. Perceptual schemas can form while the picture is being viewed for the first time or soon after. Perceptual schemas are applicable to boundary extension because one’s perceptual schema might add in background and boundary details that were not in the original photo but are a part of one’s perceptual schema of the photo.

Visual Memory

Visual memory can be defined as the process by which one encodes and remembers visual information such as pictures.  Visual memory is relevant to boundary extension because boundary extension is a visual memory phenomenon where one has to rely on the visual aspects of memory to try and recall pictures or notice any changes in the pictures or scenes.

Possible Causes of Boundary Extension

Simple BE photos with varying degrees of zoom

There are many possible causes of boundary extension.  For example, source monitoring errors, perceptual schemas, and visual memory all partially can contribute to boundary extension because they are all related to how photos are initially processed and then later remembered. 

A variety of types of objects and scenes also help facilitate boundary extension.  For example, simple scenes, a picture with one main object, and complex scenes, a picture with more than one main object, cause people to boundary extend. Photos that are really similar and that have either been zoomed a large amount or a small amount also elicit boundary extension. Furthermore, wide-angled scenes, pictures that show more of the background, and close-angled scenes, pictures that show less of the background, contribute to the boundary extension phenomenon. These scenes can be of animals, landscapes, people, or other objects. Scenes with rotated objects of varying degrees also elicit boundary extension. Moreover, 3-D models of rooms with furniture are conducive to boundary extension compared with 2-D scenes. Even neutral and emotional photos help cause boundary extension. Boundary extension occurs for scene pictures, objects in pictures with blank backgrounds, and line drawings. Outline-scenes and outline-objects elicit boundary extension. So, a variety of different scene stimuli cause boundary extension for the average person.  

How Boundary Extension Has Evolved

Complex BE photos with varying degrees of zoom

At first, boundary extension use to be studied by having participants draw scenes from memory. Participants would be presented with a photo and then the photo would be taken away and participants would be asked to draw the photo from memory keeping in mind the proportions of the original photo and the background. But because of the inherent tediousness and imprecision of coding and analyzing this kind of picture data, psychologists transitioned to studying boundary extension through picture recognition memory tasks.  In a picture recognition memory task, participants would be shown photos in the study phase and then presented with photos that were the same or slightly altered in the test phase. They would be asked if the photo was the same or if the camera angle seemed a little further away, a lot further away, a little closer, or a lot closer.  Finally, they would rate how confident they were about their answer ranging from sure, pretty sure, not sure, or did not see the picture.

Boundary Extension Affects Different Age Groups

Boundary extension occurs no matter what age one is.  For example, boundary extension is present in infants. Children also have boundary extension no matter if they draw scenes from memory or complete a picture recognition task. Even college students have boundary extension no matter the kind of boundary extension task. Finally, adults and older adults demonstrate boundary extension tendencies as well. Boundary extension will persist and occur throughout one’s life starting in infancy.

Multimodal Boundary Extension

Visual and Haptic Boundary Extension

Boundary extension has been explored by incorporating a haptic element into a boundary extension task. The researchers had college students either view or touch 3-D scene-regions with a frame.  The college students then recalled the stimuli that they had interacted with by listing what objects they had either felt or saw.  Boundary extension occurred for both the visual and haptic stimuli and conditions.  The researchers concluded that boundary extension occurs across modalities. People perceive and remember scenes multimodally through both their eyes and their hands.

Visual and Auditory Boundary Extension

Boundary extension has also been studied by adding an auditory element to see how sound relates to boundary extension and picture memory. Researchers had participants complete the normal picture recognition memory task with an added auditory component. Participants were in one of three conditions: no sound, music, or sound effect.  While viewing the photos in the study phase, participants either listened to silence, a sound relevant to the photo, or unrelated music.  They then completed the normal test phase structure of the picture recognition memory task.  Boundary extension occurred in all three conditions and did not differ across conditions.  So, the type of noise did not affect boundary extension.  Indeed, boundary extension in both auditory conditions was the same as the control condition where the participants listened to silence while viewing the photos. Auditory stimuli do not affect boundary extension at all.

Boundary Extension and Different Brains

Down Syndrome

Children with Down Syndrome still experienced boundary extension on the picture recognition memory task, the drawing task, and the 3-D scene memory task compared to children without Down Syndrome despite the differences in their brains.  Down Syndrome participants typically demonstrated the most boundary extension on the drawing task.