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To be added to the “Canine Dysfunction Syndrome” article: New section: Canine Cognitive Dysfunction and Nutrition: Canine Cognitive Dysfunction (CCD) can’t be treated with nutrition, but it can be prevented early-on with proper nutrition once a dog becomes classified as a “senior,” at the age of seven in most large breed dogs, and up to ten years in some small breeds. Symptoms of CCD can be alleviated with proper nutrition, especially relating to memory. Cognitive diets include ingredients or additives such as: Fish oil, fish meal or flaxseed provide a source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which increase cognitive abilities (Lee, Shahar, Chin, & Yusoff, 2013). Marine ingredients and flaxseed consumption has also been associated with slower cognitive decline (Qin et al., 2014). Ingredients rich in antioxidants, such as spinach, dried grape pomace, dried citrus pulp, carrots, blueberries, sweet potato, etc., decrease the formation of free radicals in nervous tissue and the brain which can help promote learning and memory improvement (Shaik-Dasthagirisahe et al., 2013). Dried Egg Product: contains essential amino acids, fats and fatty acids which support protein synthesis as well as eggs have been associated with improving cognition (Zhao et al., 2015). Supplemental L-carnitine: this amino acid nutrient is added to help reduce oxidative damage, helping to maintain cognitive abilities because it is required for mitochondrial activity, which reduces oxidative activity in cells (Roudebush et al., 2005) Supplemental L-arginine: L-Arginine is particularly important in older dogs as it has been shown to be crucial for neural transmission and brain function, because it is oxidized to nitric oxide gas in the brain, and this is used as a chemical messenger (Paul & Ekambaram, 2011). Soybean oil and soybean meal: contains omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids which promote healthy skin and coats, as well as soybean oil, which has been associated with improving cognitive function (Coscina, Yehuda, Dixon, Kish, & Leprohon-Greenwood, 1986). L-arginine can also found in low concentrations in soybean meal. B vitamins: can also be added to prevent excessive memory loss and neural breakdown (Cortman et al., 2002)(de Jager et al., 2011). Vitamin C: vitamin C content and antioxidants can improve cognitive functioning due to their ability to neutralize cell damaging free radicals (Yang & Jiang, 2010). Vitamin E (tocopherols): one of the most important antioxidants, it is often supplemented in puppy and senior dog diets (Shaik-Dasthagirisahe et al., 2013). Δ-α-Tocopherol has been shown to slow functional deterioration observed in human patients with pathological brain aging (Osella et al., 2007). Most of these ingredients and nutrients are added in unique amounts which are optimal for the cognitive health of senior dogs. Rationale: We thought there was a huge gap in the article on CCD in relation to nutrition because several studies have tied CCD with nutritional factors.

References in order they appear:

1. Lee, L. K., Shahar, S., Chin, A. V., & Yusoff, N. A. (2013). Docosahexaenoic acid-concentrated fish oil supplementation in subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI): a 12-month randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Psychopharmacology, 225(3), 605-612. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2848-0

2. Qin, B., Plassman, B. L., Edwards, L. J., Popkin, B. M., Adair, L. S., & Mendez, M. A. (2014). Fish intake is associated with slower cognitive decline in Chinese older adults. The Journal of Nutrition, 144(10), 1579-1585. doi: 10.3945/jn.114.193854

3. Shaik-Dasthagirisaheb, Y. B., Varvara, G., Murmura, G., Saggini, A., Caraffa, A., Antinolfi, P., … Pandolfi, F. (2013). Role of vitamins D, E and C in immunity and inflammation. Journal of Biological Regulators and Homeostatic Agents, 27(2), 291-295. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.govSnigdha S., Astarita G., Piomelli D. & Cotman C.W. (2012). Effects of diet and behavioural enrichment on free fatty acids in the aged canine brain. Neuroscience. Vol 202: 326-333.

4. Zhao, X., Yuan, L., Feng, L., Xi, Y., Yu, H., Ma, W., … Xiao, R. (2015). Association of dietary intake and lifestyle pattern with mild cognitive impairment in the elderly. The Journal of Nutrition, Health, & Aging, 19(2), 164-168. doi:10.1007/s12603-014-0524-2

5. Roudebush P., Sicker S.C., Cortman C.W., Milgram N.W., Muggenburg C.A. & Head, E. 2005. Nutritional Management of Brain Aging in Dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Medecine. Vol 227. p. 722-728.

6. Paul V. & Ekambaram P. (2011). Involvement of nitric oxide in learning & memory processes. Indian Journal of Medical Research. Vol.133(5): 471-478

7. Coscina, D. V., Yehuda, S., Dixon, L. M., Kish, S. J., & Leprohon-Greenwood, C. E. (1986). Learning is improved by a soybean oil diet in rats. Life Sciences, 38(19), 1789-1794. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

8. Cortman C.W., Head E., Muggenburg B.A., Zicker S. & Milgram N.W. (2002). Brain aging in the canine: a diet enriched in antioxidants reduces cognitive dysfunction. Neurobiology of Aging. Vol 23(5): 809-818.

9. de Jager C.A., Oulhaj A., Jacoby R., Refsum H. & Smith A.D. (2011). Cognitive and clinical outcomes of homocysteine-lowering B-vitamin treatment in mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. Vol 27(6). p. 592-600.

10. Yang, H., & Jiang, Y. (2010). Research progress of bioactive constituents, absorption, metabolism, and neuroprotective effects from blueberry. Journal of Hygiene Research, 39(4), 525-528. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

11. Osella, M. C., G. Re, R. Odore, C. Girardi, P. Badino, R. Barbero, and L. Bergamasco. 2007. Canine cognitive dysfunction syndrome: Prevalence, clinical signs and treatment with a neuroprotective nutraceutical. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 105:297–310 Available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159106003765.