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Leafy Seadragon

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Not to be confused with Common seadragon.

Leafy seadragon
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Syngnathiformes
Family: Syngnathidae
Subfamily: Syngnathinae
Genus: Phycodurus
T. N. Gill, 1896
Species:
P. eques
Binomial name
Phycodurus eques
(Günther, 1865)
Phycodurus eques range
Synonyms
  • Phycodurus glauerti Whitley, 1939
  • Phyllopteryx eques Günther, 1865

The leafy seadragon (Phycodurus eques) or Glauert's seadragon, is a marine fish in the family Syngnathidae, which includes seadragons, pipefish, and seahorses. It is the only member of the genus Phycodurus.

Leafy seadragon skeleton

It is found along the southern and western coasts of Australia. The name is derived from the appearance, with long leaf-like protrusions coming from all over the body. These protrusions are not used for propulsion; they serve only as camouflage. The leafy seadragon propels itself by means of a pectoral fin on the ridge of its neck and a dorsal fin on its back closer to the tail end. These small fins are almost completely transparent and difficult to see as they undulate minutely to move the creature sedately through the water, completing the illusion of floating seaweed.

Popularly known as "leafies", it is the marine emblem of the state of South Australia and a focus for local marine conservation.[2][3]

Description

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Much like the seahorse, the leafy seadragon's name is derived from its resemblance to another creature (in this case, the mythical dragon). While not large, they are slightly larger than most seahorses, growing to about 20–24 cm (8–9.5 in). They feed on plankton and small crustaceans.

The lobes of skin that grow on the leafy seadragon provide camouflage, giving it the appearance of seaweed.[4] It is able to maintain the illusion when swimming, appearing to move through the water like a piece of floating seaweed. It can also change colour to blend in, but this ability depends on the seadragon's diet, age, location, and stress level.

The leafy seadragon is related to the pipefish and belongs to the family Syngnathidae, along with the seahorse. It differs from the seahorse in appearance, form of locomotion, and its inability to coil or grasp things with its tail. A related species is the weedy seadragon, which is multicoloured and grows weed-like fins, but is smaller than the leafy seadragon. Another unique feature is the small, circular gill openings covering tufted gills, very unlike the crescent-shaped gill openings and ridged gills of most fish species.[5]

Habitat and distribution

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At Rapid Bay jetty

The leafy seadragon is found only in southern Australian waters, from Wilson’s Promontory in Victoria at the eastern end of its range, westward to Jurien Bay, 220 km (140 mi) north of Perth in Western Australia.[1][6] Individuals were once thought to have very restricted ranges; but further research has discovered that seadragons actually travel several hundred metres from their habitual locations, returning to the same spot using a strong sense of direction. They are mostly found over sand patches in waters up to 50 m (160 ft) deep, around kelp-covered rocks and clumps of sea grass.[2] They are commonly sighted by scuba divers near Adelaide in South Australia, especially at Rapid Bay, Edithburgh, and Victor Harbor.[7][8]

They are found in rocky coastal areas, at around 20-25 meters depth; common in GSV regions mostly inshore [9]. The leafy sea dragons tend to drift in blades of kelp, clumps of Sargassum [10] [11], and thrive in Posidonia seagrass meadows where they can be better camouflaged and avoid predation while also keeping themselves away from currents/water movement that they would not be able to counteract. [12]

Unlike other seahorse types, they do not tend to travel into open areas with sand and mud [13]. The Phycodurus eques is mostly found in the waters of Australia, enjoying the cool coastal temperatures that fluctuate between 11 degrees celsius in the winter months and 23 degrees celsius in the summer months. [14] [15]

The leafy seadragon is fairly understudied in its geographical distributions, due to most of its studies being held in the temperate regions of Australia, though it is assumed that they may populate in other temperate water that contain the same habitat conditions.[16]

Ecology

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Leafy seadragons usually live a solitary lifestyle. When the time comes, males court the females, they then pair up to breed. From the moment they hatch, leafy seadragons are completely independent. By the age of two, they are typically full grown and ready to breed.[17]

The species feeds by sucking up small crustaceans, such as amphipods and mysid shrimp, plankton, and larval fish through its long, pipe-like snout.[2]

Reproduction and Offspring Development

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As with seahorses, the male leafy seadragon cares for the eggs. The female produces up to 250 bright pink eggs, then deposits them onto the male's tail with her ovipositor, a long tube. The eggs then attach themselves to a brood patch, which supplies them with oxygen. After 9 weeks, the eggs begin to hatch, depending on water conditions. The eggs turn a ripe purple or orange over this period, after which the male pumps his tail until the young emerge, a process which takes place over 24–48 hours. The male aids the hatching of the eggs by shaking his tail, and rubbing it against seaweed and rocks. Once born, the young seadragon is completely independent, eating small zooplankton until large enough to hunt mysids. Only about 5% of the eggs survive.[2] Once the eggs have hatched, each individual leafy seadragon have a small yolk sack externally attached to them. This sac provides them food for the next few days. Once the eggs have hatched, the newborns can go off and hunt immediately afterwards. This sac is like a safety net for leafy seadragons for the next few days.[18]

The reproductive cycles of the leafy seadragon are compared to those of seahorses and pipefish in which after the female releases up to 100-250 fertilized eggs, the males will care for them by caring for them under their tail as they lack the specialized pouch that male seahorses have. [19] [20] [21]When the males are ready to receive the brood patch, the lower half of its tail will appear to be wrinkled where the eggs will be attached and fertilized. [22]Males are responsible for ensuring that the eggs receive the proper nourishment of oxygen during their time in the eggs which is done by the blood-rich tissue that encompasses the eggs which can receive oxygen through its blood vessels. [23] [24] These animals tend to be socially and genetically monogamous, though they can change partners between different breeding cycles. [25]

There are very few studies that have been conducted on the life cycle and reproduction of the leafy seadragon with there only being successful long-term life in aquatic environments since the late 1990s [26]. A study by Ruby Kuier, conducted in 1985, showed that newly hatched dragons measured in at around 35mm in length.  These animals grew up to 85mm in length after 21 days [27]. Another study conducted by the Under World Perth in 1992-1993, the growth rates of the sea dragons were observed over a period of 10 weeks in which they showed a growth increase of 9-10mm a week in tanks of 18 degrees celsius [28]. They determined that the leafy seadragon reaches its maturity at two years of age when they are over 20 cm in length.[29]

Movement

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The leafy seadragon uses the fins along the side of its head to allow it to steer and turn. However, its outer skin is fairly rigid, limiting mobility. Individual leafy seadragons have been observed remaining in one location for extended periods of time (up to 68 hours), but will sometimes move for lengthy periods. The tracking of one individual indicated it moved at up to 150 m (490 ft) per hour.[30]

The leafy seadragon is not known for its strong swimming ability as they lack a caudal fin and have long leaf-like appendages. [31] [32] Due to this, they do not migrate far at one time, with seemingly no seasonal movement; leaving them and their offspring quite vulnerable to predation. With the lack of a caudal fin, the seadragons display short bursts of movement along with long stints of no movement at all. [33] They are normally seen staying within their home range, which are normally around 5ha for safety and to avoid overexertion. [34]  

Feeding Strategies

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Common prey for Leafy Sea Dragons is epibenthic invertebrates, red macroalgae, plankton, and larval fishes. Crustaceans (such as mysid shrimps), small copepods (such as sea lice), and small amphipods are all common in their diet.[35] [36] [37] Leafy Sea Dragons are slow-moving and so prefer small prey that is easy to capture. To do so, they employ an ambush/lie-in-wait predator strategy or sometimes an active foraging strategy. [38]

Leafy Sea Dragons lack teeth and a stomach, so constant feeding is required for survival. They rely on camouflage to capture their prey and often hide in seaweed and seagrass before carrying out surprise attacks. [39] [40] Leafy Sea Dragons have lobes of skin on their body that allow them to look like seaweed, which they use to their advantage while feeding. [41]

Leafy Sea Dragons feed by sucking their prey into their mouth using their snouts. [42] [43] [44] This is accomplished using a form of snout expansion that is unique to the Syngnathidae family. Essentially, the snout widens and the buccal volume of the snout increases enough to be able to suck prey into the mouth. Suction is produced by the abduction of the suspensoria, which are long and flat bones that line the lower part of their snout. The expansion of a hinge joint between the suspensoria in Leafy Sea Dragon snouts is responsible for the majority of the torque required for successful suction. [45]  

Conservation

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Leafy seadragons are subject to many threats, both natural and man-made. They are caught by collectors, and used in alternative medicine.[citation needed] They are vulnerable when first born, and are slow swimmers, reducing their chance of escaping from a predator. Seadragons are sometimes washed ashore after storms.[46]

The species has become endangered through pollution and industrial runoff, as well as collection for the aquarium trade. In response to these dangers, the species has been totally protected in South Australia since 1987, Victoria since at least 1995, and Western Australia since 1991. Additionally, the species' listing in the Australian government's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 means that the welfare of the species has to be considered as a part of any developmental project.[1][47][48]

The last IUCN assessment of Phycodurus eques was performed on May 12, 2016 and was published in 2017. As of 2022, the Leafy Sea Dragon is listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as a species of Least Concern. [49] However, until 2006, this species was listed as Near Threatened. [50] Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 allowed populations to recover slightly, but despite these efforts, the current population trend suggests Leafy Sea Dragon numbers are in decline once again. [51] [52]

Effects of Climate Change and Other Anthropogenic Influences on the Species and its Ecosystem

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Anthropogenic impacts and the growing threat of climate change are leaving Leafy Sea Dragons exposed and at risk. They are not a migrating species, which makes them especially vulnerable to localized threats. [53] In their natural habitat, Leafy Sea Dragons are subject to many threats. The primary threats include overexploitation and habitat loss/habitat degradation. [54]

Leafy Sea Dragons are often caught as bycatch by non-selective fisheries and are sometimes even targeted by small-scale fishers. [55] [56] Most accidental capture comes as a result of shrimp trawling due to the fact this species lives in the same habitat as shrimp and that they are slow-moving. Bycatch is either sold to collectors and aquariums or they are processed into fishmeal. [57] The Australian EPBC Act of 1999 has helped to better regulate fisheries and create more sustainable fishing practices, but Leafy Sea Dragon bycatch is still an issue. [58] [59]

The shallow seagrass meadow, seaweed bed, and rocky reef habitats that this species inhabits require protection. [60] [61] [62] Bottom trawling, dredging, coastal development, land-based pollution, and coastal eutrophication have all had major impacts on these habitats. In many cases, the habitats of Leafy Sea Dragons have been severely degraded or destroyed by these human-caused hazards. [63] [64] In order for the population to stop decreasing, conservation efforts to stop run-off pollution, stop unsafe fishery and aquaculture practices, and reduce boat traffic must be implemented effectively. [65] Loss of seagrass habitats could be catastrophic and these areas, in particular, must be protected. [66]

Sea-level change is another climate change impact that is likely to have a major impact on Leafy Sea Dragons. The global sea level is constantly rising and one study tracked the influence of sea-level change on Leafy Sea Dragon populations. [67] The genetics of the species were tracked from the Last Glacial Maximum to 2020 and the results suggest that fluctuating sea levels produce locally variable genetic signatures in different populations. In Western Australia, the sea level is lower and the availability of shallow seabed is also lower. This means Leafy Sea Dragons that live in the west have a shallower genetic structure, lower genetic diversity, and weaker expansion signals. [68] [69] In Eastern Australia, the sea level is higher and shallow seabed availability is also much higher. This means Leafy Sea Dragons in the east have a deeper genetic structure, higher genetic diversity, and stronger expansion signals. [70] [71] As the sea level continues to increase, it will be interesting to see if these Leafy Sea Dragon genetic trends remain the same or change over time.    


The last IUCN assessment of Phycodurus eques was performed on May 12, 2016 and was published in 2017. As of 2022, the Leafy Sea Dragon is listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as a species of Least Concern. (5) However, until 2006, this species was listed as Near Threatened. (4) Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 allowed populations to recover slightly, but despite these efforts, the current population trend suggests Leafy Sea Dragon numbers are in decline once again. (3,5)

In captivity

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Due to being protected by law, obtaining seadragons is often an expensive and difficult process as they must be from captive bred stock, and exporters must prove their broodstock were caught before collecting restrictions went into effect, or that they had a license to collect seadragons. Seadragons have a specific level of protection under federal fisheries legislation as well as in most Australian states where they occur.[1] Seadragons are difficult to maintain in aquaria. Success in keeping them has been largely confined to the public aquarium sector, due to funding and knowledge that would not be available to the average enthusiast. Attempts to breed the leafy seadragon in captivity have so far been unsuccessful.[72]

Australia

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Australian aquaria featuring leafy seadragons include the Sydney Aquarium,[73] the Melbourne Aquarium, and the Aquarium of Western Australia.[74]

Canada

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Ripley's Aquarium of Canada in Toronto displays both leafy and weedy seadragons.[75][76]

Leafy seadragon at the South East Asia Aquarium. Video clip

South East Asia

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South East Asia Aquarium, located in the Marine Life Park of Singapore, have the leafy seadragon (Phycodurus eques) and the Weedy seadragon (Phyllopteryx taeniolatus).

United States

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Leafy seadragon at the Monterey Bay Aquarium

A number of aquaria in the United States have leafy seadragon research programs or displays. Among these are the Adventure Aquarium in Camden, New Jersey,[77] Aquarium of the Pacific at Long Beach,[78] the Birch Aquarium at Scripps, San Diego,[79] the Minnesota Zoo,[80] the Monterey Bay Aquarium[81] in California, the Dallas World Aquarium, Texas,[82] the New England Aquarium, Boston,[83] the Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium in Tacoma, Washington,[84] the Shedd Aquarium, Chicago,[85] the California Academy of Sciences,[86] the Tennessee Aquarium,[87] Sea World Orlando, Florida, the Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium,[citation needed], Ripley's Aquarium of the Smokies, Gatlinburg, Tennessee[citation needed], and The Florida Aquarium in Tampa,[88] Florida. and the Mote Aquarium in Sarasota, Florida.[citation needed], Ripley's Aquarium Broadway at the Beach, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. [citation needed]

Cultural references

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The leafy seadragon is the official marine emblem of the state of South Australia.[89] It also features in the logos of the following South Australian associations — the Adelaide University Scuba Club Inc. and the Marine Life Society of South Australia Inc.[90][91]

A biennial Leafy Sea Dragon Festival is held within the boundaries of the District Council of Yankalilla in South Australia. It is a festival of the environment, arts and culture of the Fleurieu Peninsula, with the theme of celebrating the leafy seadragon. The inaugural festival in 2005 attracted over 7,000 participants including 4000 visitors.[92]

In 2006, an animated short film, The Amazing Adventures of Gavin, a Leafy Seadragon, was made on behalf of several South Australian organisations involved in conserving the marine environment, including the Coast Protection Board, the Department of Environment and Heritage and the Marine Discovery Centre.[93][94][95] Made through a collaboration of The People's Republic of Animation, Waterline Productions and the SA Film Corporation,[96] the film is an introductory guide to marine conservation and the marine bioregions of South Australia suitable for 8-12 year olds,[97] and copies were distributed on DVD to all primary schools in the State. An educator's resource kit to accompany the film was released in 2008.[98][99]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d Pollom, R. (2017). "Phycodurus eques". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T17096A67622420. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T17096A67622420.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d "The Leafy Sea Dragon" (PDF). Yankalilla Visitor Information Centre. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
  3. ^ "Leafy and Weedy Sea Dragon". Animals.NationalGeographic.com. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
  4. ^ Cott, Hugh (1940). Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Oxford University Press. pp. 341–342.
  5. ^ (Lourie 1999).
  6. ^ Morrison, Sue; Storrie, Ann (1999). Wonders of Western Waters. Como, Western Australia: Department of Conservation and Land Management. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-7309-6894-8.
  7. ^ "Leafy sea dragon". Underwater Photography Guide Website.
  8. ^ Neville Coleman; Nigel Marsh. "Victor Harbour (sic)". Underwater Australia. Neville Coleman. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
  9. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  10. ^ Connolly, Rod M.; Melville, Andrew J.; Keesing, John K. (2002). Marine and Freshwater Research. 53 (4): 777. doi:10.1071/mf01168. ISSN 1323-1650 http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf01168. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  11. ^ Cann, John H.; Murray-Wallace, Colin V. (2017). "LATE PLEISTOCENE PALEOSEALEVELS INFERRED FROM FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA, GULF ST VINCENT, SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Geological Society of America. doi:10.1130/abs/2017cd-291968.
  12. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  13. ^ Cann, John H.; Murray-Wallace, Colin V. (2017). "LATE PLEISTOCENE PALEOSEALEVELS INFERRED FROM FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA, GULF ST VINCENT, SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Geological Society of America. doi:10.1130/abs/2017cd-291968.
  14. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  15. ^ Connolly, Rod M.; Melville, Andrew J.; Keesing, John K. (2002). Marine and Freshwater Research. 53 (4): 777. doi:10.1071/mf01168. ISSN 1323-1650 http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf01168. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  16. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  17. ^ New England Aquarium. "Leafy Sea Dragon". New England Aquarium Animals and Exhibits. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  18. ^ Groves, Paul (December 1998). "Leafy Sea Dragons". Scientific American. 279 (6): 84–89. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1298-84. ISSN 0036-8733.
  19. ^ Cann, John H.; Murray-Wallace, Colin V. (2017). "LATE PLEISTOCENE PALEOSEALEVELS INFERRED FROM FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA, GULF ST VINCENT, SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Geological Society of America. doi:10.1130/abs/2017cd-291968.
  20. ^ Small, Clayton M.; Healey, Hope M.; Currey, Mark C.; Beck, Emily A.; Catchen, Julian; Lin, Angela S. P.; Cresko, William A.; Bassham, Susan (25 September 2021). "Leafy and Weedy Seadragon Genomes Connect Genic and Repetitive DNA Features to the Extravagant Biology of Syngnathid Fishes". dx.doi.org. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
  21. ^ Groves, Paul (1998-12). "Leafy Sea Dragons". Scientific American. 279 (6): 84–89. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1298-84. ISSN 0036-8733. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Groves, Paul (1998-12). "Leafy Sea Dragons". Scientific American. 279 (6): 84–89. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1298-84. ISSN 0036-8733. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ Small, Clayton M.; Healey, Hope M.; Currey, Mark C.; Beck, Emily A.; Catchen, Julian; Lin, Angela S. P.; Cresko, William A.; Bassham, Susan (25 September 2021). "Leafy and Weedy Seadragon Genomes Connect Genic and Repetitive DNA Features to the Extravagant Biology of Syngnathid Fishes". dx.doi.org. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
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  25. ^ Cann, John H.; Murray-Wallace, Colin V. (2017). "LATE PLEISTOCENE PALEOSEALEVELS INFERRED FROM FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA, GULF ST VINCENT, SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Geological Society of America. doi:10.1130/abs/2017cd-291968.
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  27. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  28. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  29. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  30. ^ Connolly, R. M.; Melville, A. J.; Preston, K. M. (2002). "Patterns of movement and habitat use by leafy seadragons tracked ultrasonically". Journal of Fish Biology. 61 (3): 684–695. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2002.tb00904.x.
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  32. ^ Groves, Paul (1998-12). "Leafy Sea Dragons". Scientific American. 279 (6): 84–89. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1298-84. ISSN 0036-8733. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  33. ^ Connolly, R. M.; Melville, A. J.; Preston, K. M. (2002-09). "Patterns of movement and habitat use by leafy seadragons tracked ultrasonically". Journal of Fish Biology. 61 (3): 684–695. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2002.tb00904.x. ISSN 0022-1112. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  34. ^ Cann, John H.; Murray-Wallace, Colin V. (2017). "LATE PLEISTOCENE PALEOSEALEVELS INFERRED FROM FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA, GULF ST VINCENT, SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Geological Society of America. doi:10.1130/abs/2017cd-291968.
  35. ^ Ape, Francesca; Corriero, Giuseppe; Mirto, Simone; Pierri, Cataldo; Lazic, Tamara; Gristina, Michele (2019-08). "Trophic flexibility and prey selection of the wild long-snouted seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus Cuvier, 1829 in three coastal habitats". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 224: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2019.04.034. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. ^ "Sea dragon threatened". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 28 (7): 409. 1994-07. doi:10.1016/0025-326x(94)90118-x. ISSN 0025-326X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  38. ^ Ape, Francesca; Corriero, Giuseppe; Mirto, Simone; Pierri, Cataldo; Lazic, Tamara; Gristina, Michele (2019-08). "Trophic flexibility and prey selection of the wild long-snouted seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus Cuvier, 1829 in three coastal habitats". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 224: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2019.04.034. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ^ Ape, Francesca; Corriero, Giuseppe; Mirto, Simone; Pierri, Cataldo; Lazic, Tamara; Gristina, Michele (2019-08). "Trophic flexibility and prey selection of the wild long-snouted seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus Cuvier, 1829 in three coastal habitats". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 224: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2019.04.034. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ^ Stiller, Josefin; Wilson, Nerida G.; Donnellan, Stephen; Rouse, Greg W. (25 October 2016). "The Leafy Seadragon,Phycodurus eques, a Flagship Species with Low But Structured Genetic Variability". Journal of Heredity: esw075. doi:10.1093/jhered/esw075. ISSN 0022-1503.
  41. ^ Ape, Francesca; Corriero, Giuseppe; Mirto, Simone; Pierri, Cataldo; Lazic, Tamara; Gristina, Michele (2019-08). "Trophic flexibility and prey selection of the wild long-snouted seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus Cuvier, 1829 in three coastal habitats". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 224: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2019.04.034. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ "Sea dragon threatened". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 28 (7): 409. 1994-07. doi:10.1016/0025-326x(94)90118-x. ISSN 0025-326X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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Further reading

[edit]
  • Connolly, R. M. (September 2002). "Patterns of movement and habitat use by leafy seadragons tracked ultrasonically". Journal of Fish Biology. 61 (3): 684–695. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2002.tb00904.x.
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Phycodurus eques.

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