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Stone Age

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See also: Stone Age

At times during the last interglacial period (130,000– 70,000 BCE) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to what is now Scotland, though archaeologists have found no traces of this. Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around 9600 BCE.[1] Mesolithic hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated a site near Biggar to around 8500 BCE.[2] Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers, probably with a very low density of population.[3] Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements, such as the stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray dating from 3500 BCE, and greater concentrations of population.[4]

Neolithic habitation, burial and ritual sites are particularly common and well-preserved in the Northern and Western Isles, where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone.[5] There are also large numbers of chambered tombs and cairns from this period. Many different types have been identified, but they can be roughly grouped into passage graves, gallery graves and stone cists. Cists are relatively simple box-like graves, usually made up of stone slaps and covered with a large stone or slab.[6] Maes Howe, near Stenness on the mainland of Orkney (dated 3400-3200 BCE) and Monamore, Isle of Arran (dated approximately 3500 BCE) are passage graves, of megalith construction, built with large stones, many of which weigh several tons.[7] Gallery graves are rectangular gallery-like spaces, where the entrance at one end is the width of the gallery. These were sometimes lined or roofed with slabs and then covered with earth.[8] Among the most impressive surviving monuments of the period are the first sets of standing stones in Scotland, such as those at Stenness on the mainland of Orkney, which date from about 3100 BCE, of four stones, the tallest of which is 16 feet (5 m) in height.[9]

The Callanish Stones, one of the finest stone circles in Scotland

In contrast to the Highlands and Islands where stone was extensively used, in the south and east the most visible architectural survivals of the Neolithic are mainly earthen barrows, the earliest probably dating from the beginning of the fourth millennium BCE. Today these monuments consist of massive mounds of earth or stone, most commonly trapezoidal in plan and often orientated to the east. They are widely distributed in the Lowlands, particularly in Aberdeenshire, Angus, Dumfries and Galloway and the Scottish Borders.[10] Related structures include bank barrows, cursus monuments, mortuary enclosures, timber halls, and other forms of enclosure.[11] Bank barrows are parallel-sided mounds, usually flanked by ditches on either side. Originally believed to be Roman in origin, cursus monuments also consist of long parallel lengths of banks of earth with external ditches, but with an open avenue or enclose between. Both forms are usually associated with burial chambers.[12] Examples of bank barrows in Scotland include from Perthshire the long mound at Auchenlaich and the hybrid bank barrow/cursus monument and at Cleaven Dyke, which stretches for over 1.5 miles (2 km).[13][14] Mortuary enclosures are usually sub-rectangular banks with external ditches and raised platforms of stone or wood within them, thought by J. G. Scott to be used for the exposure of corpses prior to burial elsewhere, although this interpretation is disputed. Remains of mortuary enclosures of this period are often found under long barrows. Key examples include Pitnacree, Perthshire and two closely related sites at Lochhill and Slewcairn, both in Kirkcudbright.[15]

Bronze Age

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See also: Bronze Age

As bronze working developed from about 2000 BCE, there was a decline in the building of large new structures, which, with a reduction of the total area under cultivation, suggests a fall in population.[16] The creation of cairns and Megalithic monuments continued into this period. There are approximately fifty Clava cairns in Scotland, named after those at Balnuaran of Clava near Inverness. They take take two distinct forms, either a circular rubble enclosure known as "ring cairns", or passage graves, with a long entrance, usually in complex astronomical alignments.[17] The "Ballachulish Figurine" is a life-sized female figure, dating from 700–500 BCE, in oak with quartz pebbles for eyes, found at Ballachulish, Argyll. It was located in a wickerwork structure in a peat bog which overlooks the entrance to a sea loch, which may have been a place of ritual significance and the figurine may be that of a goddess.[18]

Iron Age

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Main article: Celtic polytheism
See also: Iron Age
The "Cernunnos" type antlered figure on the Gundestrup Cauldron found in Denmark

The lack of native written sources among the Picts means that it can only be judged from parallels elsewhere, occasional surviving archaeological evidence and hostile accounts of later Christian writers. It is generally presumed to have resembled Celtic polytheism. The names of more than two hundred Celtic deities have been noted, some of which, like Lugh, The Dagda and The Morrigan, come from later Irish mythology, whilst others, like Teutatis, Taranis and Cernunnos, come from evidence from Gaul.[19] There are none of the grave goods that exist for the Anglo-Saxons.[20] The Celtic pagans constructed temples and shrines to venerate these gods, something they did through votive offerings and performing sacrifices, possibly including human sacrifice.[21] There is evidence of votive offerings, sometimes of Roman items and evidence of the head cult in northern Britain.[20] According to Greek and Roman accounts, in Gaul, Britain and Ireland, there was a priestly caste of "magico-religious specialists" known as the druids, although very little is definitely known about them.[21] Irish legends about the origin of the Picts and stories from the life of St. Ninian, associate the Picts with druids. The Picts are also associated in Christian writing with "demon" worship and one story concerning St. Columba has him exorcising a demon from a well in Pictland, suggesting that the worship of well spirits was a feature of Pictish paganism. Roman mentions of the worship of the Goddess Minerva at wells, and a Pictish stone associated with a well near Dunvegan Castle on Skye, have been taken to support this case.[22]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ F. Pryor, Britain B.C.: Life in Britain and Ireland before the Romans (London: Harper Collins, 2003), ISBN 0-00-712693-X, p. 99.
  2. ^ "Signs of Earliest Scots Unearthed". BBC News. 2009-04-09. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
  3. ^ P. J. Ashmore, Neolithic and Bronze Age Scotland: An Authoritative and Lively Account of an Enigmatic Period of Scottish Prehistory (London: Batsford, 2003), ISBN 0-7134-7531-5.
  4. ^ A. Moffat, Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History (London: Thames and Hudson, 2005), ISBN 0-500-28795-3, pp. 268–70.
  5. ^ F. Pryor, Britain BC (London: HarperPerennial, 2003), ISBN 978-0-00-712693-4, pp. 98–104 and 246–50.
  6. ^ G. Noble, Neolithic Scotland: Timber, Stone, Earth and Fire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), ISBN 0748623388, p. 113.
  7. ^ F. Somerset Fry and P. Somerset Fry, The History of Scotland (London: Routledge, 1992), ISBN 0710090013, p. 7.
  8. ^ F. Somerset Fry and P. Somerset Fry, The History of Scotland (London: Routledge, 1992), ISBN 0710090013, p. 8.
  9. ^ C. Wickham-Jones, Orkney: A Historical Guide (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2007), ISBN 1780270011, p. 28.
  10. ^ G. Noble, Neolithic Scotland: Timber, Stone, Earth and Fire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), ISBN 0748623388, p. 71.
  11. ^ G. Noble, Neolithic Scotland: Timber, Stone, Earth and Fire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), ISBN 0748623388, p. 45.
  12. ^ J. Pollard, Neolithic Britain (Osprey, 2008), ISBN 0747803536, pp. 39-40.
  13. ^ R. Bradley, The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland (Cambridge University Press, 2007), ISBN 0521848113, pp. 62-4.
  14. ^ G. J. Barclay and G. S. Maxwell, The Cleaven Dyke and Littleour: Monuments in the Neolithic of Tayside (Society Antiquaries Scotland, 1998), ISBN 090390313X, p. xii.
  15. ^ G. Noble, Neolithic Scotland: Timber, Stone, Earth and Fire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), ISBN 0748623388, pp. 72-4.
  16. ^ A. Moffat, Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History (London. Thames & Hudson, 2005), ISBN 0500287953, p. 154.
  17. ^ C. Scarre, Monuments and Landscape in Atlantic Europe: Perception and Society during the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (New York: Routledge, 2002), ISBN 0415273145, p. 125.
  18. ^ I. Armit, "The Iron Age" in D. Omand, ed., The Argyll Book (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2006), ISBN 1-84158-480-0, p. 58.
  19. ^ B. Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts (Oxford, 1997), ISBN 0-14-025422-6, p. 184.
  20. ^ a b M. D. Lambert, Christians and Pagans: The Conversion of Britain from Alban to Bede (Yale University Press, 2010), ISBN 0300168268.
  21. ^ a b R. Hutton, Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain (Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0-300-14485-7, p. 17.
  22. ^ P. Dunbavin, Picts and Ancient Britons: an Exploration of Pictish Origins (Third Millennium Publishing, 1998), ISBN 0-9525029-1-7, p. 41.
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