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A dried flowered bud of the Cannabis sativa plant.
For the plant see Cannabis.

Cannabis, (also known as marijuana[1] or ganja[2] in its herbal form and hashish in its resinous form[3]) is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (= C. indica Lam.). The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature inflorescences and subtending leaves of pistillate ("female") plants. The resinous form consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material.

The major biologically active chemical compound in cannabis is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC. It has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight[4] (which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency). A related compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabidivarin, also known as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas. Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory[5], although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that cannabis is now regularly used by four percent of the world's adult population.[6]

It has been reported that commercial hashish is often no more potent than high quality seedless marijuana.[7] However, carefully produced and screened hashish is up to three times as potent as the highest quality herbal varieties.[8]

Ancient history

[edit]

Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, as indicated by charred Cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.[5] The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal, and the Hashshashins (hashish eaters) of present day Syria. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian and Nepali languages).[9][10] The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.[11]

Cannabis was also known to the Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans. Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu or the drug for sadness. Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance. Members of the cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace, are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with Cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500 to 2,800 year old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.[12][13]

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians. It was also used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.[14]. In India and Nepal, it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it as a sacrament.[15] Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ.[16] Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,[17] the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism,[18] the Cannabis Assembly[19] and the Church of cognizance. Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion. When the ancient Hindus or Vedic "Dharmas" used this drug they would often pray for increased wisdom.


Relationship with other drugs

[edit]

Since its origin in the 1950s, the "gateway drug" hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of marijuana drug policy in the United States, but this model of cause and effect has not been proven.[20] Those who subscribe to this theory argue that cannabis use may lead one down the path of drug addiction, and should therefore be treated as a serious matter. Many researchers conclude that this model of behavior has little basis in fact, though other mental health professionals believe that studies support the "gateway drug" model.[21] Despite the conflicting results of such studies, many researchers agree that the illegal status of cannabis has a direct connection to the "gateway theory".[22][23] The reasoning goes that cannabis users are more likely than non-users to place themselves in situations where other illicit substances are being used. In order to acquire cannabis they are likely to become acquainted with people who use or sell other more stigmatized drugs such as cocaine or heroin, which may lead to serious addictions (nevermind that legalization would cut these ties to underworld elements when purchasing marijuana). Using this philosophy, activities such as smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol may also be regarded as having a gateway effect on youth.

Comparison of addiction vs. physical harm for 20 drugs

Indeed, certain studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit drug use than smoking cannabis.[24] With this argument in mind, certain activist groups such as NORML contend that legalizing cannabis would substantially reduce the use of other drugs by taking the distribution of marijuana out of the hands of criminals, and regulating it in a similar manner to alcohol or tobacco.[25] Government agencies such as the DEA, however, claim that legalization would do far more harm than good, and would likely cause a rise in cannabis use.[26]

A study published in The Lancet 24 March 2007[27] finds that cannabis is both less harmful and less addictive than either alcohol or tobacco. Twenty drugs were assigned a risk from 0 to 3. Cannabis was ranked 17th out of 20 for harmfulness, while alcohol and tobacco were ranked 11th and 14th respectively. Cannabis was ranked 11th for dependence while alcohol was 6th and tobacco 3rd, behind heroin and cocaine.

A current doctoral thesis from Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, on the neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure, gives support for the cannabis gateway hypothesis in relation to adult opiate abuse. THC exposed rats showed increased motivation for drug use under conditions of stress. The findings do not support the cannabis gateway hypothesis in regard to subsequent amphetamine exposure.[28]

Classification of Cannabis
[edit]

While many drugs clearly fall in to the category of either Stimulant, Depressant, Hallucinogen, or Antipsychotic, Cannabis, containing both THC and CBD , exhibits a mix of all sections, leaning towards the hallucinogen section due to THC being the primary constituent. [29][30][31]


Preparations for human consumption

[edit]
File:HOcannabis.jpg
Herbal cannabis "buds"

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

  • Marijuana or ganja: the flowering tops of female plants
  • Hashish or charas: a concentrated resin composed of glandular trichomes and vegetative debris that has been physically extracted, usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice
Hashish
  • Kief or kif: 1) the chopped flowering tops of female cannabis plants, often mixed with tobacco; 2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains;[32] 3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen") 4) The crystal (trichomes) left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana; then smoked.
  • Bhang: a beverage prepared by grinding cannabis leaves in milk and boiling with spices and other ingredients
  • Honey oil: an oily mixture resulting from chemical extraction or distillation of the THC-rich parts of the plant, THC usually ~ 10-20% and up to 70%[citation needed]

These forms are not exclusive, and mixtures of two or more different forms of cannabis are frequently consumed. Between the many different strains of cannabis and the various ways that it is prepared, there are innumerable variations similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic beverages that are consumed.

Smoking

[edit]
Main article: Cannabis smoking
Variety of cannabis-smoking paraphernalia.

There are a wide variety of methods and apparatus for smoking cannabis. One can either choose to smoke through a bong or the more popular one which is to roll it up with zigzag rolling paper or with the skin of a cigar, which is commonly referred to as "smoking a dutch".

Vaporization

[edit]

A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C), which turns the active ingredients into gas without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 200°C at 0.02 mm Hg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure).[33][34] Toxic chemicals are released at much lower levels than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A study by MAPS/NORML, using a Volcanotm vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor. However, an older study using less sophisticated vaporizers found more toxins. The effects from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC. [35][36]

Eating cannabis

[edit]

As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. Although hashish is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in ethanol, or combined with butter or other lipids. The effects of cannabis administered this way take longer to begin, but last longer. They are sometimes perceived as more physical than mental, although there are many claims to the contrary. An oral dose of cannabis is often considered to give a more intense experience than the equivalent dose of smoked cannabis. Some people report unpleasant experiences after ingesting cannabis, because they experience a more intense effect than they are comfortable with.

Smoking cannabis results in a significant loss of THC and other cannabinoids in the exhaled smoke, by decomposition on burning, and in smoke that is not inhaled. In contrast, all of the active constituents enter the body when cannabis is ingested. It has been shown that the primary active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC by the liver.[37] Titration to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation.

As with other drugs taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before eating cannabis to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will enable the THC to enter the bloodstream more quickly. However, some people eat ordinary food before consuming the drug, because eating it on an empty stomach can cause nausea. The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal cannabis are almost immediate.


Other Methods of Preparation

[edit]

Cannabis material can be leached in high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create "Green Dragon." This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. Although THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 grams per litre[38]), enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb.

In 2006, hollowed-out gumballs filled with cannabis material and labeled as "Greenades" were distributed by high school students in the United States.[39]

Seeds

[edit]

Cannabis seeds (technically called achenes), which are not psychoactive, are high in protein and essential fatty acids, and are readily consumed by many species of birds. They are also consumed by humans, and are a key ingredient in certain traditional recipes in Europe, and elsewhere. In many countries, including the United States and Canada, possession of viable cannabis seeds is illegal.[40]

Immediate effects of consumption

[edit]

The nature and intensity of the immediate (as opposed to long-term) effects of cannabis consumption vary depending on such factors as dose, potency, cannabinoid (and possibly terpenoid) composition, method of consumption, length of time since last usage, the user's mental and physical state, and their surroundings. These last two factors are sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same cannabis material in different frames of mind (set) or in different locations (setting) can alter the effects of the drug, or one's perception of the effects. What the user does while under the influence of cannabis can also alter the effects. If the user is inactive they may feel relaxed and sleepy, whereas if the user engages in physical or mental activity they may feel energized. The effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that sativa drug varieties tend to produce greater cognitive or perceptual effects than indica varieties, which tend to produce more physical effects. [citation needed]

Effects of intoxication

[edit]

The state of intoxication due to cannabis is colloquially known as "high"; it is the state where mental and physical facilities are noticeably altered due to the consumption of cannabis. Each user experiences a different high, and the nature of it may vary upon factors such as potency, dose, chemical composition, method of consumption and set and setting.

Cannabis intoxication is most commonly characterized by:

  • Relaxation[41]
  • Mild euphoria[41]
  • Drowsiness[41]
  • Distortion of time passage[42]
  • Anxiety (purportedly observed in one out of five users) [43]
  • Antiemetic effects (reduction of nausea, legal extracts of cannabis are prescribed for this effect)[44]
  • Visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, and gustatory enhancement (increased appreciation and awareness of colors and shapes, smells, sound and music, tactile feelings, and tastes)[1]

Side effects may include:

"Munchies"
[edit]

The "Munchies" is a term that is often used to describe the increased appetite that some claim comes from using cannabis. Research performed by the National Institutes of Health claimed that cannabis increases food enjoyment and the number of times a person eats each day. Recently, scientists have claimed to be able to explain what causes the increase in appetite, concluding that "endocannabinoids in the hypothalamus activate cannabinoid receptors that are responsible for maintaining food intake."[46]. There are also indications that cannabis is an appetite suppressor.

Toxicity

[edit]

According to the Merck Index,[47] the LD50 (dosage lethal to 50% of rats tested) of Δ9-THC by inhalation is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is the equivalent of a man weighing 75 kg (165 lb) inhaling the THC found in 21 grams of extremely high-potency (15% THC) marijuana all in one sitting, assuming no THC is lost through smoke loss or absorption by the lungs. For oral consumption, the LD50 for male rats is 1270 mg/kg, and 730 mg/kg for females—equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC marijuana.[48] The ratio of cannabis material required to saturate cannabinoid receptors to the amount required for a fatal overdose is 1:40,000.[49] There have been no reported deaths or permanent injuries sustained as a result of a marijuana overdose. It is practically impossible to overdose on marijuana, as the user would certainly either fall asleep or otherwise become incapacitated from the effects of the drug before being able to consume enough THC to be mortally toxic. While it has never been reported, it is theoretically feasible for concentrated THC (hash or oil) to cause an overdose. We also learn by comparing LD50s that the toxicity of the cannabis is significantly lower than that of alcohol or other frequently consumed products.

Health issues and the effects of cannabis

[edit]
Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis

Although there are many conflicting studies involving health issues and the effects of cannabis, certain physical and mental health effects conclusions have been reached. Today, there is still a substantial amount of propaganda and misinformation from both cannabis advocates and opponents due to the legal issues of cannabis, including legal and political constraints on cannabis research.

Cannabis is currently recognized as a psychologically addictive drug. There is no cannabis withdrawal disorder in the DSM-IV, but studies have demonstrated that cannabis use can induce mild withdrawal symptoms similar to other drugs with recognized psychological dependence.

Confounding combination

[edit]

The most obvious confounding factor in cannabis research is the prevalent usage of other recreational drugs, including alcohol and tobacco.[50] Marijuana use and increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. [51] Such complications demonstrate the need for studies on cannabis that have stronger controls, and investigations into the symptoms of cannabis use that may also be caused by tobacco. Most cannabis research within the USA is funded by government agencies who in turn publish position papers citing research studies that spotlight the negative consequences of cannabis use.[52][53] In light of this, some people question whether these agencies make an honest effort to present an accurate, unbiased summary of the evidence, or whether they "cherry-pick" their data, and others caution that the raw data, and not the final conclusions, are what should be examined.[54]


Memory

[edit]

Cannabis is known to act on the hippocampus (an area of the brain associated with memory and learning), and impair short term memory and attention for the duration of its effects and in some cases for the next day. In the long term, some studies point to enhancement of particular types of memory.[55] Cannabis was found to be neuroprotective against excitotoxicity and is therefore beneficial for the prevention of progressive degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease.[56] A 1998 report commissioned in France by Health Secretary of State Bernard Kouchner and directed by Dr. Pierre-Bernard Roques determined that, "former results suggesting anatomic changes in the brain of chronic cannabis users, measured by tomography, were not confirmed by the accurate modern neuro-imaging techniques," (like MRI). "Moreover, morphological impairment of the hippocampus [which plays a part in memory and navigation] of rat after administration of very high doses of THC (Langfield et al., 1988) was not shown (Slikker et al., 1992)" (translated). He concluded that cannabis does not have any neurotoxicity as defined in the report, unlike alcohol and cocaine.[57][58][59]

Mental illness

[edit]

Research between the use of cannabis and mental illness has also brought significant results. Cannabis use is generally higher among sufferers of schizophrenia, but the causality between the two has not been established.[60][61] Another study concluded that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among genetically predisposed individuals has been associated with a variety of mental illness outcomes, ranging from psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia.[62][63]

Adulterated cannabis

[edit]

Contaminants are found in street cannabis; low-quality hashish such as soap bar has a reputation for being full of contaminants (some psychoactive, some not) which serve to increase the bulk of the street product.[64] Recently, there have been reports of herbal cannabis being adulterated with minute (silica [usually glass or sand], or sugar} crystals in the UK and Ireland. These crystals resemble THC in appearance, yet are much heavier, and so serve again to increase the weight, and hence value, of the cannabis on the street[65].

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