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Introduction

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), or simply autism, is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by repetitive, restricted, and inflexible patterns of behavior, interests, and activities; deficits in social communication and social interaction; and the presence of high or low sensory sensitivity. A formal diagnosis requires that symptoms cause significant impairment in multiple functional domains, in addition to being atypical or excessive for the person's age and sociocultural context.

Autism is a spectrum disorder meaning it manifests in various ways, with its severity and support needs varying widely across different autistic people. For example, some autistic people are nonverbal, while others have proficient spoken language. Furthermore, the spectrum is multi-dimensional and not all dimensions have been identified as of 2024. (Full article...)

Selected general articles

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  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by executive dysfunction occasioning symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity and emotional dysregulation that are excessive and pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and developmentally-inappropriate.
  
  ADHD symptoms arise from executive dysfunction, and emotional dysregulation is often considered a core symptom. Impairments resulting from deficits in self-regulation such as time management, inhibition, and sustained attention can include poor professional performance, relationship difficulties, and numerous health risks, collectively predisposing to a diminished quality of life and a direct average reduction in life expectancy of 13 years. The disorder costs society hundreds of billions of US dollars each year, worldwide. It is associated with other neurodevelopmental and mental disorders as well as non-psychiatric disorders, which can cause additional impairment. (Full article...)
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  Classification is the activity of assigning objects to some pre-existing classes or categories. This is distinct from the task of establishing the classes themselves (for example through cluster analysis). Examples include diagnostic tests, identifying spam emails and deciding whether to give someone a driving license.
  
  As well as 'category', synonyms or near-synonyms for 'class' include 'type', 'species', 'order', 'concept', 'taxon', 'group', 'identification' and 'division'. (Full article...)
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  A splinter skill is an "ability to do a specific task that does not generalize to other tasks", according to Occupational Therapy for Physical Dysfunction. Cheatum and Hammond define them as skills learned that are above the child's age. Jacks writes that they are skills that are not "an integral part of the orderly sequential development"; that is, skills mastered before they are developmentally expected.
  
  According to Ayres and Robbins, an example is "the ability to play a particular piece on the piano without having the generalized ability to play the piano". (Full article...)
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  Healed scars on the forearm from prior self-harm

  
  Self-harm refers to intentional behaviors that cause harm to oneself. This is most commonly regarded as direct injury of one's own skin tissues, usually without suicidal intention. Other terms such as cutting, self-injury, and self-mutilation have been used for any self-harming behavior regardless of suicidal intent. Common forms of self-harm include damaging the skin with a sharp object or scratching with the fingernails, hitting, or burning. The exact bounds of self-harm are imprecise, but generally exclude tissue damage that occurs as an unintended side-effect of eating disorders or substance abuse, as well as more societally acceptable body modification such as tattoos and piercings.
  
  Although self-harm is by definition non-suicidal, it may still be life-threatening. People who do self-harm are more likely to die by suicide, and self-harm is found in 40–60% of suicides. Still, only a minority of those who self-harm are suicidal. (Full article...)
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  Pathological demand avoidance (PDA) or extreme demand avoidance (EDA) is a proposed disorder, and proposed sub-type of autism spectrum disorder, defined by characteristics such as a demand avoidance—which is a greater-than-typical refusal to comply with requests or expectations—and extreme efforts to avoid social demands. Any expectation, even routine activities, such as brushing teeth, or highly desired activities, such as getting ready to leave home to visit a playground, can trigger avoidant behavior. If the demand cannot be avoided, a panic attack or a meltdown may ensue. (Full article...)
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  PLOS Biology is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of biology. Publication began on October 13, 2003. It is the first journal published by the Public Library of Science. The editor-in-chief is Nonia Pariente.
  
  In addition to research articles, the journal publishes magazine content aimed to be accessible to a broad audience. Article types in this section are essays, "unsolved mysteries", editorials, and synopses. (Full article...)
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  Mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS) is a term referring to one of two types of mast cell activation disorder (MCAD); the other type is idiopathic MCAD. MCAS is an immunological condition in which mast cells, a type of white blood cell, inappropriately and excessively release chemical mediators, such as histamine, resulting in a range of chronic symptoms, sometimes including anaphylaxis or near-anaphylaxis attacks. Primary symptoms include cardiovascular, dermatological, gastrointestinal, neurological, and respiratory problems. (Full article...)
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  Cloth embroidered by a person diagnosed with schizophrenia

  
  Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, hearing voices), delusions, disorganized thinking and behavior, and flat or inappropriate affect. Symptoms develop gradually and typically begin during young adulthood and are never resolved. There is no objective diagnostic test; diagnosis is based on observed behavior, a psychiatric history that includes the person's reported experiences, and reports of others familiar with the person. For a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the described symptoms need to have been present for at least six months (according to the DSM-5) or one month (according to the ICD-11). Many people with schizophrenia have other mental disorders, especially mood, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and substance use disorders.
  
  
  About 0.3% to 0.7% of people are diagnosed with schizophrenia during their lifetime. In 2017, there were an estimated 1.1 million new cases and in 2022 a total of 24 million cases globally. Males are more often affected and on average have an earlier onset than females. The causes of schizophrenia may include genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants. Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city, childhood adversity, cannabis use during adolescence, infections, the age of a person's mother or father, and poor nutrition during pregnancy. (Full article...)
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  The Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering research on all aspects of autism spectrum disorders and related developmental disabilities. The journal was established in 1971 as the Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, obtaining its current title in 1979. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Lynn Kern Koegel (Stanford University). (Full article...)
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  Lithograph of a person diagnosed with melancholia and strong suicidal tendency in 1892

  
  Depression is a mental state of low mood and aversion to activity. It affects about 3.5% of the global population, or about 280 million people worldwide, as of 2020. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings, and sense of well-being. The pleasure or joy that a person gets from certain experiences is reduced, and the afflicted person often experiences a loss of motivation or interest in those activities. People with depression may experience sadness, feelings of dejection or hopelessness, difficulty in thinking and concentration, or a significant change in appetite or time spent sleeping; suicidal thoughts can also be experienced.
  
  Depression can have multiple, sometimes overlapping, origins. Depression can be a symptom of some mood disorders, some of which are also commonly called depression, such as major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and dysthymia. Additionally, depression can be a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the loss of a loved one. Depression is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments. (Full article...)
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  Children with intellectual disabilities and other developmental conditions competing in the Special Olympics World Games

  
  Intellectual disability (ID), also known as general learning disability (in the United Kingdom), and formerly mental retardation (in the United States), is a generalized neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant impairment in intellectual and adaptive functioning that is first apparent during childhood. Children with intellectual disabilities typically have an intelligence quotient (IQ) below 70 and deficits in at least two adaptive behaviors that affect everyday living. According to the DSM-5, intellectual functions include reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience. Deficits in these functions must be confirmed by clinical evaluation and individualized standard IQ testing. On the other hand, adaptive behaviors include the social, developmental, and practical skills people learn to perform tasks in their everyday lives. Deficits in adaptive functioning often compromise an individual's independence and ability to meet their social responsibility.
  
  Intellectual disability is subdivided into syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits associated with other medical and behavioral signs and symptoms are present, and non-syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits appear without other abnormalities. Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome are examples of syndromic intellectual disabilities. (Full article...)
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  Feeling soft or otherwise enjoyable textures is a common form of stimming.

  
  Self-stimulatory behavior, also known as "stimming" and self-stimulation, is the repetition of physical movements, sounds, words, moving objects, or other behaviors. Stimming is a type of restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB). Such behaviors (also scientifically known as "stereotypies") are found to some degree in all people, but is especially prevalent in those with developmental disabilities such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism. People diagnosed with sensory processing disorder are also known to potentially exhibit stimming behaviors.
  
  Stimming has been interpreted as a protective response to overstimulation, in which people calm themselves by blocking less predictable environmental stimuli, to which they have a heightened sensitivity. A further explanation views stimming as a way to relieve anxiety and other negative or heightened emotions. (Full article...)
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  A cognitive bias is a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. Individuals create their own "subjective reality" from their perception of the input. An individual's construction of reality, not the objective input, may dictate their behavior in the world. Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, and irrationality.
  
  While cognitive biases may initially appear to be negative, some are adaptive. They may lead to more effective actions in a given context. Furthermore, allowing cognitive biases enables faster decisions which can be desirable when timeliness is more valuable than accuracy, as illustrated in heuristics. Other cognitive biases are a "by-product" of human processing limitations, resulting from a lack of appropriate mental mechanisms (bounded rationality), the impact of an individual's constitution and biological state (see embodied cognition), or simply from a limited capacity for information processing. Research suggests that cognitive biases can make individuals more inclined to endorsing pseudoscientific beliefs by requiring less evidence for claims that confirm their preconceptions. This can potentially distort their perceptions and lead to inaccurate judgments. (Full article...)
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  The Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering research on all aspects of autism spectrum disorders and related developmental disabilities. The journal was established in 1971 as the Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, obtaining its current title in 1979. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Lynn Kern Koegel (Stanford University). (Full article...)
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  Generalized 3 Hz spike-and-wave discharges on an electroencephalogram

  
  Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. An epileptic seizure is the clinical manifestation of an abnormal, excessive, and synchronized electrical discharge in the neurons. The occurrence of two or more unprovoked seizures defines epilepsy. The occurrence of just one seizure may warrant the definition (set out by the International League Against Epilepsy) in a more clinical usage where recurrence may be able to be prejudged. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain. These episodes can result in physical injuries, either directly, such as broken bones, or through causing accidents. In epilepsy, seizures tend to recur and may have no detectable underlying cause. Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy. People with epilepsy may be treated differently in various areas of the world and experience varying degrees of social stigma due to the alarming nature of their symptoms.
  
  The underlying mechanism of an epileptic seizure is excessive and abnormal neuronal activity in the cortex of the brain, which can be observed in the electroencephalogram (EEG) of an individual. The reason this occurs in most cases of epilepsy is unknown (cryptogenic); some cases occur as the result of brain injury, stroke, brain tumors, infections of the brain, or birth defects through a process known as epileptogenesis. Known genetic mutations are directly linked to a small proportion of cases. The diagnosis involves ruling out other conditions that might cause similar symptoms, such as fainting, and determining if another cause of seizures is present, such as alcohol withdrawal or electrolyte problems. This may be partly done by imaging the brain and performing blood tests. Epilepsy can often be confirmed with an EEG, but a normal reading does not rule out the condition. (Full article...)
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  Comprehensive Psychiatry is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering psychopathology. It was established in 1960 and is published by Elsevier. The editor-in-chief is Naomi Fineberg (University of Hertfordshire). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 2.128. (Full article...)
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  A stereotypy (/ˈstɛri.əˌtaɪpi, ˈstɪər-, -i.oʊ-/, STERR-ee-ə-ty-pee, STEER-, -⁠ee-oh-) is a repetitive or ritualistic movement, posture, or utterance. Stereotypies may be simple movements such as body rocking, or complex, such as self-caressing, crossing and uncrossing of legs, and marching in place. They are found especially in people with autism spectrum disorders and visually impaired children, and are also found in intellectual disabilities, tardive dyskinesia and stereotypic movement disorder; however, they may also be encountered in neurotypical individuals as well. Studies have shown stereotypies to be associated with some types of schizophrenia. Frontotemporal dementia is also a common neurological cause of repetitive behaviors and stereotypies. A number of causes have been hypothesized for stereotypy, and several treatment options are available.
  
  Stereotypy is sometimes called stimming in autism, under the hypothesis that it self-stimulates one or more senses. (Full article...)
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  Feeling soft or otherwise enjoyable textures is a common form of stimming.

  
  Self-stimulatory behavior, also known as "stimming" and self-stimulation, is the repetition of physical movements, sounds, words, moving objects, or other behaviors. Stimming is a type of restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB). Such behaviors (also scientifically known as "stereotypies") are found to some degree in all people, but is especially prevalent in those with developmental disabilities such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism. People diagnosed with sensory processing disorder are also known to potentially exhibit stimming behaviors.
  
  Stimming has been interpreted as a protective response to overstimulation, in which people calm themselves by blocking less predictable environmental stimuli, to which they have a heightened sensitivity. A further explanation views stimming as a way to relieve anxiety and other negative or heightened emotions. (Full article...)
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  Depiction of insomnia from the 14th century medical manuscript Tacuinum Sanitatis

  
  Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder where people have trouble sleeping. They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep for as long as desired. Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability, and a depressed mood. It may result in an increased risk of accidents of all kinds as well as problems focusing and learning. Insomnia can be short term, lasting for days or weeks, or long term, lasting more than a month. The concept of the word insomnia has two distinct possibilities: insomnia disorder (ID) or insomnia symptoms, and many abstracts of randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews often underreport on which of these two possibilities the word refers to.
  
  
  Insomnia can occur independently or as a result of another problem. Conditions that can result in insomnia include psychological stress, chronic pain, heart failure, hyperthyroidism, heartburn, restless leg syndrome, menopause, certain medications, and drugs such as caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol. Insomnia is also common in people with ADHD, and children with autism. Other risk factors include working night shifts and sleep apnea. Diagnosis is based on sleep habits and an examination to look for underlying causes. A sleep study may be done to look for underlying sleep disorders. Screening may be done with questions like "Do you experience difficulty sleeping?" or "Do you have difficulty falling or staying asleep?" (Full article...)
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  Research in Developmental Disabilities is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering developmental disabilities. It was formed in 1987 by the merger of Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities and Applied Research in Mental Retardation, which were established in 1981 and 1980, respectively. It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is Dagmara Dimitriou (UCL Institute of Education).
  
  In early February of 2015, the journal's founding editor-in-chief Johnny Matson (Louisiana State University) was accused of excessively citing his own works and thereby inflating his citation counts. An investigation by Elsevier came to the conclusion that Matson had used his position to have papers published without proper peer review that used assessment batteries developed by himself and sold through a company registered in his wife's name, failing to report this conflict of interest. This eventually led to the retraction of 24 papers across Research in Developmental Disabilities and Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, a second Elsevier journal edited by Matson. Matson was also criticized for publishing a large number of his own papers, citing his own work, in these journals. Effective March 2015 Elsevier appointed Dagmara Dimitriou as the new editor-in-chief and updated the journal's editorial policies. (Full article...)
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  The Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering research on all aspects of autism spectrum disorders and related developmental disabilities. The journal was established in 1971 as the Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, obtaining its current title in 1979. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Lynn Kern Koegel (Stanford University). (Full article...)
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  In physiology, nociception (/ˌnəʊsɪˈsɛpʃ(ə)n/), also nocioception; from Latin nocere 'to harm/hurt') is the sensory nervous system's process of encoding noxious stimuli. It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive a painful stimulus, convert it to a molecular signal, and recognize and characterize the signal to trigger an appropriate defensive response.
  
  In nociception, intense chemical (e.g., capsaicin present in chili pepper or cayenne pepper), mechanical (e.g., cutting, crushing), or thermal (heat and cold) stimulation of sensory neurons called nociceptors produces a signal that travels along a chain of nerve fibers via the spinal cord to the brain. Nociception triggers a variety of physiological and behavioral responses to protect the organism against an aggression, and usually results in a subjective experience, or perception, of pain in sentient beings. (Full article...)
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  Dermatophagia – extreme nail biting / biting of skin to point of an obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) or other condition leading to self mutilating behaviour such as autistic spectrum disorders (as is the case in this example) or Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome.

  
  
  Compulsive behavior (or compulsion) is defined as performing an action persistently and repetitively. Compulsive behaviors could be an attempt to make obsessions go away. Compulsive behaviors are a need to reduce apprehension caused by internal feelings a person wants to abstain from or control. A major cause of compulsive behavior is said to be obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). "Compulsive behavior is when someone keeps doing the same action because they feel like they have to, even though they know these actions do not align with their goals." There are many different types of compulsive behaviors including shopping, hoarding, eating, gambling, trichotillomania and picking skin, itching, checking, counting, washing, sex, and more. Also, there are cultural examples of compulsive behavior. (Full article...)
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  Organs of the gastrointestinal tract

  
  Gastrointestinal diseases (abbrev. GI diseases or GI illnesses) refer to diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, namely the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum; and the accessory organs of digestion, the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. (Full article...)
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  People at a Learning Disabilities Month event in Times Square in 2012

  
  Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty (British English) is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "learning difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a possible lack of an ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping. In the United Kingdom, the term "learning disability" generally refers to an intellectual disability, while conditions such as dyslexia and dyspraxia are usually referred to as "learning difficulties".
  
  While learning disability and learning disorder are often used interchangeably, they differ in many ways. Disorder refers to significant learning problems in an academic area. These problems, however, are not enough to warrant an official diagnosis. Learning disability, on the other hand, is an official clinical diagnosis, whereby the individual meets certain criteria, as determined by a professional (such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, speech-language pathologist, or paediatrician). The difference is in the degree, frequency, and intensity of reported symptoms and problems, and thus the two should not be confused. When the term "learning disorder" is used, it describes a group of disorders characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills. Types of learning disorders include reading (dyslexia), arithmetic (dyscalculia) and writing (dysgraphia). (Full article...)

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Selected images

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  An autistic three-year-old points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development. (from Autism)
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  A 2024 Danish cohort study found increased risks for a multitude of comorbid physical diseases, especially in infancy. (from Autism)
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  A young autistic boy who has arranged his toys in a row (from Autism)
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  An autistic boy arranging brads on a cork coaster (from Autism)
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  In 1996, American academic Temple Grandin published Emergence: Labeled Autistic, describing her life experiences as an autistic person. (from Autism)
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  In 2021, Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg likened her autism to a "superpower", crediting her success to her special interests. (from Autism)
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  In 2021, screenwriter and actor Wentworth Miller revealed his autism diagnosis in a now-deleted Instagram post, stating it was "a shock" but "not a surprise". (from Autism)
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  Euler diagram showing overlapping clinical phenotypes in genes associated with monogenic forms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), dystonia, epilepsy and schizophrenia:

    Genes associated with epilepsy

    Genes associated with schizophrenia

    Genes associated with autism spectrum disorder

    Genes associated with dystonia

  (from Autism)
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  Hundreds of different genes are implicated in susceptibility to developing autism, most of which alter the brain structure in a similar way. (from Autism)
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  Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children rose considerably in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much growth came from changes in rates of autism. (from Autism)
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  Autism awareness ribbon, used by Autism Speaks from 2005 (from Autism)

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