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Canada: Sustainable Development Goal 14

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Sustainable Development Goal 14

Background

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Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 is one of 17 other Sustainable Development Goals created by the United Nations in 2015 and is targeted towards sustainably managing marine and coastal ecosystems [1]. It is titled "Life Below Water" and has a total of 10 targets to achieve more sustainable use of marine and coastal ecosystems by 2030 [1].

Summary of Global Targets

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  1. Reduce Marine Pollution [2]
  2. Manage, Protect, and Restore Marine and Coastal Ecosystems [2]
  3. Reduce Ocean Acidification [2]
  4. Practice Sustainable Fishing [2]
  5. Conserve Coastal and Marine Areas [2]
  6. Eliminate Subsidies Contributing to Overfishing [2]
  7. Promote Economic Benefits Through Sustainable Management [2]
  8. Improve Knowledge of Ocean Health [2]
  9. Support Small Scale Fishers [2]
  10. Implement and Enforce International Sea Law [2]

For further information see Sustainable Development Goal 14

Action in Canada

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Canada has the largest coastline in the world, which makes the components of SDG 14 especially significant, creating nearly 300,000 jobs and contributing $31.7 billion in gross domestic product in 2021 [3]. As such, Canada aims to conserve 25% of its oceans by 2025, and 30% by 2030, ultimately seeming to be trending in the right direction given a nearly 13% rise in conservation area from 2015 to 2020 [3]. The Canadian Indicator Framework (CIF) is comprised of 76 total indicators which are tailored specifically to Canada, and contain two of which pertain to SDG14, being the proportion of marine and coastal areas conserved proportion of fish stocks that are sustainably harvested [4].

Listed below are a few of the examples of action Canada has taken towards SDG 14

MPAs: Marine Protected Areas, established by Fisheries and Oceans Canada, aims to protect and conserve marine species, habitats and ecosystems. There are currently 14 Oceans Act Marine Protected Areas across Canada, comprising over 350,000 km2 or roughly 6% of Canada's marine and coastal areas [5].

NMCAs: National marine conservation areas, established by Parks Canada, protect and conserve areas of Canada's oceans and Great Lakes for the benefit and enjoyment of the public. There are currently 5 national marine conservation areas in Canada, representing 6 of the 29 marine regions identified in the NMCA system plan, and protect approximately 123,490 square kilometers of Canada’s marine and freshwater ecosystems in the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic oceans and the Great Lakes [6].

mNWAs: Marine national wildlife areas, established by Environment and Climate Change Canada, for the purposes of wildlife conservation, research, and interpretation. National Wildlife Areas protect over 3.5 million hectares of habitat with almost half of that are protecting marine habitat [7].

Marine Refuges: established by Fisheries and Oceans Canada, are measures to help protect important species and their habitats from the impacts of fishing qualify as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). Canada has conserved 14.66% of its marine territory. Marine refuges account for more than one third (5.66%) of that achievement [8].

Sustainable Fisheries Framework: The framework establishes a precautionary approach to fisheries management, provides the basis for an ecosystem approach to fisheries management, includes tools to monitor and assess environmentally sustainable initiatives and combines new and evolving fisheries management policies with current ones for ensuring that Canadian fisheries support conservation and sustainable use of resources [9]

In 2010, Canada committed to conserving 10% of coastal and marine areas nationally in support of global target, through effectively managed systems of MPAs and OECMs by 2020 [10]. By 2019, Canada had protected and conserved nearly 14% (13.81%) - surpassing its 10% target and committed to conserving 25% of our oceans by 2025 [10].

In 2020, Canada joined the Global Ocean Alliance and the High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People, which advocates and provides support for the conservation of at least 30% of the world's oceans through the establishment of MPAs and OECMs by 2030 [10]. Canada continued to advocate for the conservation of the world's oceans at the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2022 [10].

The Government of Canada has since supported these commitments through significant investments, announcing a new budget in 2016, that would invest $197.1 million over five years, starting in 2016-2017, to increase ocean and freshwater scientific research and monitoring at Fisheries and Oceans Canada [11]. Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau, announced up to $800 million over seven years, starting in 2023-24, to support up to four Indigenous-led conservation initiatives [12].

Targets, Indicators, and Status

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Target 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution [13]

Indicator: (a) Index of coastal eutrophication; and (b) plastic debris density [13]

Status: Exploring data sources [13]

Likelihood of Meeting Goal or Target (Global): Uncertain [14]

Target 14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans [15]

Indicator: Number of countries using ecosystem based approaches to manage marine areas [15]

Status: Exploring data sources [15]

Likelihood of Meeting Goal or Target (Global): Will not be met [16]

Target 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels [15]

Indicator: Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations [15]

Status: Exploring data sources [15]

Likelihood of Meeting Goal or Target (Global): Will not be met [16]

Target 14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time possible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics [15]

Indicator: Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels (%) [15]

Status: 94% as of 2019 via Environment and Climate Change Canada [15]

Likelihood of Meeting Goal or Target (Global): Will not be met [16]

Target 14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10% of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information [15]

Indicator: Coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areas (%) [15]

Status: 13.8% as of 2019 [15] via Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and Environment and Climate Change Canada [15]

Likelihood of Meeting Goal or Target (Global): Uncertain [16]

Target 14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation [15]

Indicator: Progress by countries in the degree of implementation of international instruments aiming to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing [15]

Status: Exploring data sources [15]

Likelihood of Meeting Goal or Target (Global): Uncertain [16]

Target 14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism[15]

Indicator: Sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP in small island developing States, least developed countries and all countries [15]

Status: Exploring data sources [15]

Likelihood of Meeting Goal or Target (Global): Uncertain [16]

Target 14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries [15]

Indicator: Proportion of total research budget allocated to research in the field of marine technology [15]

Status: Exploring data sources [15]

Target 14.b Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets [15]

Indicator: Progress by countries in the degree of application of a legal/regulatory/policy/institutional framework which recognizes and protects access rights for small-scale fisheries [15]

Status: Exploring data sources [15]

Target 14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of "The future we want" [15]

Indicator: Number of countries making progress in ratifying, accepting and implementing through legal, policy and institutional frameworks, ocean-related instruments that implement international law, as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans and their resources [15]

Status: Exploring data sources [15]

Progress

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14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution [13]

Ambition - Canada protects and conserves marine areas and sustainably manages ocean fish stocks [17]

Target - Conserve 25% of Canada's oceans by 2025, working towards 30% by 2030 [17]

Progress Status - On Track [17] 14.2

14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans [15]

Ambition - Canada protects and conserves marine areas and sustainably manages ocean fish stocks [17]

Target - By 2023, major fish and invertebrate stocks are managed and harvested at levels considered to be sustainable, from a baseline of 96% in 2016 [17]

Progress Status - Progress made but acceleration needed [17]

Challenges

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Overfishing: Overfishing is harmful to ecosystem balance and services and hinders the sustainable development of fisheries. As an example, research in the Saanich Inlet has shown a dramatic decrease in groundfish population led by overfishing would result in a decrease in the dissolution of sedimentary opal and enhancement of its burial efficiency and therefore a reduced supply of dissolved silica to surface water [18]. Silica is an essential nutrient for diatoms and other marine organisms, and changes in its availability in water can have ecological implications, including affecting the biological chain and nutrient balance [18].

Climate Change: Global warming has seriously affected Canada's fisheries. Taking Fraser River (British Columbia, Canada) as an example, the average water temperature rose by 1.5 degrees in summer, which triggered a high mortality event in Fraser River sockeye salmon [19]. If the Fraser River continues to warm as expected, the survival rate of organisms in the river will drop by 9-16% by the end of this century [19]. The stage most affected by the rise of water temperature is the period of salmon spawning and migration [19]. Although the impact of climate warming on aquatic organisms varies from population to population, existing studies have proved that the majority of populations are indeed affected, creating a difficult challenge in the protection of fisheries in Canada.

Plastic Pollution: Plastics are widely used in various aspects of human life due to their durability. However, this has also led to a large amount of plastic debris entering the oceans, posing a threat to the safety of marine ecosystems and the organisms that inhabit them. A study conducted in 2015 indicated that marine avian species have been severely affected by plastic pollution [20]. All three coastlines of Canada are highly susceptible to plastic contamination. Even species living in the most remote environments, such as the endangered ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) in the Arctic highlands, can be affected by plastic pollution [20]. The primary source of plastic entering the bodies of birds is often through the consumption of fish containing plastic particles, via bioaccumulation, which further highlights the severity of marine plastic pollution [20].

Case Studies

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Collaborative Efforts with Indigenous Communities in Ocean Management in Northern Canada

The natural resources and ecosystems of northern Canada, especially the Arctic region, are facing increasing pressure, including climate change, resource development, and ecosystem destruction. The concept of collaborative comprehensive management aims to integrate the perspectives and decisions of multiple stakeholders to achieve sustainable development focusing on community participation and cooperation to better manage natural resources [21]. Local and traditional knowledge are particularly important in collaborative comprehensive management. This knowledge originates from the long-term experience of local communities and helps to understand and manage local ecosystems, especially in the face of constantly changing conditions [21]. The concept of community based monitoring refers to data collection and monitoring activities led by local communities to assess environmental changes and resource status, which provides more control and decision-making support for local communities [21]. It indicates that the participation of local communities and the integration of local and traditional knowledge are crucial for the success of collaborative integrated management [21].

Human Dimensions of Marine Protected Areas

Using the Gully MPA and the Eastport MPA as examples, it can be concluded that the success of MPA cannot be separated from ten factors:

(i) objectives and attitudes, (ii) people-orientated “entry points”, (iii) attachment to place, (iv) make participation meaningful, (v) knowledge has a “people side” (vi) effective governance is critical, (vii) get the rights right, (viii) costs, benefits, and distribution,(ix) deal with displacement, and (x) see MPAs in the bigger picture [22].

For “objectives and attitudes”, goals generally refer to resource management goals or biological goals combined with people-oriented goals, which are necessary for making correct MPA decisions, while attitude refers to the determination of relevant staff and the public to achieve their goals [22]. “People-orientated ‘entry points’” mainly reflect the important influence of society, economy and institutional factors on MPA that they support, restrict or drive the implementation of MPA [22]. Each place has its own unique society and ecosystem, and “attachment to place” emphasizes the degree of people's concern for the considered place. “Make participation meaningful” pointed out that during the implementation of MPA, staff should reach a consensus, strengthen communication and encourage the accountability of authorities and experts [22]. “Knowledge has a ‘people side’" discusses that the implementation of MPA should not only focus on biological, geographical and physical data, but also understand the social values, the historical information, and the economic level related to the area [22]. “Effective governance is critical”, reflecting the importance of regulation [22]. MPA is a set of rules used to manage human behavior and activities in specific areas, and success requires effective governance and well functioning management institutions [22]. “Get the rights right”, as the name suggests, refers to the careful selection of management and entry rights for MPA, which has a significant impact on the effectiveness of it whereas “costs, benefits, and distribution” generally refer to the management costs, opportunity costs, and environmental ecological benefits of MPA [22]. Distribution then refers to the reasonable distribution of benefits and costs, as the establishment of MPA not only means that the resources of those who originally used it in the area are replaced, but also means that they may no longer be allowed to enter that area [22]. At this point, in establishing an MPA, it is necessary to properly deal with displacement, which includes allowing fishermen near the MPA to fish in prohibited fishing areas or providing them with compensation and employment opportunities [22]. Lastly, “see MPAs in the bigger picture” emphasizes a holistic view of MPA from the perspectives of marine conservation, coastal livelihoods, and the broader socio-economic environment [22]. These ten elements, combined with the experiences and lessons learned from multiple MPAs, are crucial for the development and implementation of MPAs.

Combating the Spread of Zebra Mussels Within Canada: A Framework for Mitigating Effects and Increasing the Preservation and Biodiversity of Freshwater Ecosystems in Alignment with SDG 14: Life Under Water

Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

Canada shares its border with the Arctic, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans which can create more vectors for aquatic invasive species, such as the zebra mussel, that can make its way into freshwater systems from cargo ships.

SDG 14.2 focuses on protecting ecosystems and restoring them, however, many freshwater ecosystems have suffered depleting biodiversity and ongoing physical degradation as a result of the zebra mussel. It was found that the invasions of zebra mussels in freshwater ecosystems increased environmental stressors, which lead to 10 times increase in extinction rates among native local mussels, because zebra mussels exhibit better adaptive traits, allowing them to outcompete the native mussels [23]. These genetic traits must be understood into a greater context, as it is essential to avoid further spread of zebra mussels into smaller bodies of water to stop this type of biodiversity loss. Furthermore, by understanding the type of environment zebra mussels prefer, there is potential to learn how to combat and control them from growing and spreading to different areas.

There are several factors that can impact freshwater quality that can predict whether or not there is an opportunity for the zebra mussel to expand into the body of water or continue to exist in that area. Factors such as salinity, clarity, temperature, productivity, and oxygen were each critical factors that determined whether zebra mussels existed in high/low populations [24]. A research study taken place in a subtropical reservoir measured larval stages and the abundances of them at different water qualities [24]. Findings showed that zebra mussels preferred to be in places with lower salinity, higher water clarity, and lower productivity, explaining why zebra mussels cannot live in oceans because of extremely high salinity [24]. Lower temperatures are more sought after, likely due to less predation pressures in that area, ultimately allowing them to reproduce exponentially [24].

Limiting the locations where the zebra mussels can spread and cause harm is the first step in action required to uphold SDG 14.2 and protecting these ecosystems. A simulation of Ecosim modeling portrayed different scenarios of zebra mussel invasions, finding that fish, such as rainbow and lake trout, had the greatest declines in population [25]. One interpretation of this data is that competitive exclusion played a major role where the introduction of these zebra mussels brought upon competition for the same food and the fish were eventually outcompeted [25]. Mechanisms that limit the effects of zebra mussels are in shallow water, where the scope for invasion is significantly reduced as well as the movement of organisms, such as fish, in and out of the system [25]. These findings support the conclusion that zebra mussels do not favour areas with a lot of action and movement [25].

The genetic composition, or genotypes, of zebra mussels are important in understanding genetic phenomena, such as natural selection or genetic drift. An analysis of the zebra mussel within the Hudson River and Lake Erie showed that the allelic composition during 2003 showed a major shift in composition [26]. This was likely due to a sudden instance of genetic drift that caused fluctuations in alleles resulting in certain genes becoming more common within the zebra mussels [26]. It is also possible that the zebra mussels suffered an event where new attributes and features linked to the alleles were required to adapt to the new environment [26]. Thus, it was found that it was quite common for invasive species, like zebra mussels, to constantly alter the genotypes and alleles emphasizing a need for new methods and treatments, and studying them on a consistent basis.

Presently, there is no true solution that can be used to combat the spread of zebra mussels other than taking preventative measures such as remembering to drain water from boats and avoid mixing species from one area to another. It is imperative that the framework used for managing these invasive species is sustainable because if a solution is too costly, resource depleting, or the negative effects outweigh the positives within the environment, it is not sustainable. Extensive framework modeling displayed that it was actually cheaper to invest in prevention, rather than intervention to control the population, proving that the relationship between the population density and economic impacts is vital and must be understood [27]. However, tackling a major issue like invasive species is not something that can be resolved in a day or two with minimal steps, rather it is proper communication and action between government officials and citizens that will be the first step in the right direction.

Room For Improvement

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Globally, over 2 billion people rely on fish as a primary source of food, cementing itself as a vital economic pillar for growth, while also aligning itself with the status of SDGs 1 and 2 that address poverty and world hunger [28]. The issue around the world regarding this SDG is that progress is being made too slowly, only 2% of countries are currently on track to meet the criteria within SDG 14 by 2030 [16]. Though Canada has made some progress towards SDG 14, there are plenty of targets still in their beginning stages, this is due to the complexity of SDG 14 and what it requires. This is in part due to the fact that monitoring fish stocks and ocean states or functions are extremely difficult, and has resulted in SDG consistently being lowly prioritized, to the point where it is often considered the least-important SDG [17]. It is also important to note that nearly all of SDG 14's goals are heavily oriented towards the ocean, and incorporate little to no guidelines towards the life under water that exists in smaller bodies of water (as the example of zebra mussels shows above), such as lakes, rivers, or ponds, indicating that this SDG should either rename itself and pertain to only the ocean or extend its scope and take all life under water into account. Furthermore, across several studies analyzing the degrees of achievement of SDG 14's targets across the world states there are a variety of promising suggestions that could improve implementation, policy, and monitoring efforts.

  1. Reflect on past achievement to achieve existing goals [29]
  2. Understand each country's capacity for achievement, as not all have equal results, and therefore more investments need to be made to help countries towards accelerated and positive achievements [29]
  3. Recognition of ocean equity, meaning addressing structural imbalances that exist between countries that result in overfishing and pollution beyond national waters [29]
  4. Creating an SDG solely focusing on oceans [28]
  5. Utilizing positive synergies across all SDGs [28]
  6. Use 'other effective area-based conservation measures' (OECMs) to increase conservation at a small-scale [30]
  7. “The Future We Want” is limited to a handful of representatives mostly from developed countries, inclusion of delegates from Small Island Developing States or less developed economies is essential to strengthen the links between scientific knowledge and practical implication [31]

This analysis emphasizes the need for Canada to spearhead global change for Life Below Water given its position geographically, as a coastal country, and in terms of development or economic status because oceans are transboundary entities.

Aligning Initiatives and Policies

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References

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  1. ^ a b "Sustainable Development Goal 14", Wikipedia, 2023-10-13, retrieved 2023-10-21
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Sustainable Development Goals | United Nations Development Programme". UNDP. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  3. ^ a b Sustainable Development Goals Unit (2021).Canada’s 2021 Annual Report on the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals. Taking Action Together.
  4. ^ Canada, Employment and Social Development (2023-01-04). "Sustainable Development Goal 14: Life below water". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 2023-10-23.
  5. ^ Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2019-11-22). "Marine Protected Areas across Canada". www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  6. ^ Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada (2023-11-09). "National marine conservation areas - Parks Canada - Parks Canada". parks.canada.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  7. ^ Canada, Environment and Climate Change (2011-02-16). "Current national wildlife areas". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  8. ^ Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2019-07-25). "Marine refuges across Canada". www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  9. ^ Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2009-03-23). "Sustainable fisheries framework". www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  10. ^ a b c d Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2019-08-20). "Reaching Canada's marine conservation targets". www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  11. ^ Canada, Fisheries and Oceans (2016-05-11). "New Science Investments at Fisheries and Oceans Canada". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  12. ^ "Protecting more nature in partnership with Indigenous Peoples". Prime Minister of Canada. 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  13. ^ a b c d Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2018-05-16). "Agenda 2030: Sustainable Development Goal 14 - Life below water". www144.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-10-23.
  14. ^ Nash, Kirsty L.; Blythe, Jessica L.; Cvitanovic, Christopher; Fulton, Elizabeth A.; Halpern, Benjamin S.; Milner-Gulland, E.J.; Addison, Prue F.E.; Pecl, Gretta T.; Watson, Reg A.; Blanchard, Julia L. (2020-02-21). "To Achieve a Sustainable Blue Future, Progress Assessments Must Include Interdependencies between the Sustainable Development Goals". One Earth. 2 (2): 161–173. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.01.008.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2018-05-16). "Agenda 2030: Sustainable Development Goal 14 - Life below water". www144.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-10-23.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Nash, Kirsty L.; Blythe, Jessica L.; Cvitanovic, Christopher; Fulton, Elizabeth A.; Halpern, Benjamin S.; Milner-Gulland, E.J.; Addison, Prue F.E.; Pecl, Gretta T.; Watson, Reg A.; Blanchard, Julia L. (2020-02-21). "To Achieve a Sustainable Blue Future, Progress Assessments Must Include Interdependencies between the Sustainable Development Goals". One Earth. 2 (2): 161–173. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.01.008.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g "Goal 14 - Life below water - Canada Indicators For The Sustainable Development Goals". sdgcif-data-canada-oddcic-donnee.github.io. Retrieved 2023-10-23.
  18. ^ a b Katz, Timor; Yahel, Gitai; Yahel, Ruthy; Tunnicliffe, Verena; Herut, Barak; Snelgrove, Paul; Crusius, John; Lazar, Boaz (2009-12-31). "Groundfish overfishing, diatom decline, and the marine silica cycle: Lessons from Saanich Inlet, Canada, and the Baltic Sea cod crash". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 23 (4). doi:10.1029/2008GB003416. ISSN 0886-6236.
  19. ^ a b c Martins, Eduardo G.; Hinch, Scott G.; Patterson, David A.; Hague, Merran J.; Cooke, Steven J.; Miller, Kristina M.; Lapointe, Michael F.; English, Karl K.; Farrell, Anthony P. (2011-01). "Effects of river temperature and climate warming on stock-specific survival of adult migrating Fraser River sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka): TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON ADULT SALMON SURVIVAL". Global Change Biology. 17 (1): 99–114. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02241.x. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ a b c Provencher, Jennifer F.; Bond, Alexander L.; Mallory, Mark L. (2014-07-16). "Marine birds and plastic debris in Canada: a national synthesis and a way forward". Environmental Reviews. 23 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1139/er-2014-0039. ISSN 1181-8700.
  21. ^ a b c d Berkes, Fikret; Berkes, Mina Kislalioglu; Fast, Helen (2007-02-03). "Collaborative Integrated Management in Canada's North: The Role of Local and Traditional Knowledge and Community-Based Monitoring". Coastal Management. 35 (1): 143–162. doi:10.1080/08920750600970487. ISSN 0892-0753.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Charles, Anthony; Wilson, Lisette (2009-01-01). "Human dimensions of Marine Protected Areas". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 66 (1): 6–15. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsn182. ISSN 1095-9289.
  23. ^ Ho, Long T.; Goethals, Peter L. M. (2019-07-05). "Opportunities and Challenges for the Sustainability of Lakes and Reservoirs in Relation to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)". Water. 11 (7): 1462. doi:10.3390/w11071462. ISSN 2073-4441.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  24. ^ a b c d Hallidayschult, Thayer; Beyer, Jessica; Hambright, David (2021). "Spatial variation in propagule pressure and establishment of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) within a subtropical reservoir". Aquatic Invasions. 16 (1): 94–112. doi:10.3391/ai.2021.16.1.07. ISSN 1818-5487.
  25. ^ a b c d Woodruff, Patricia; van Poorten, Brett; Walters, Carl; Christensen, Villy (2021). "Potential effects of invasive Dreissenid mussels on a pelagic freshwater ecosystem: using an ecosystem model to simulate mussel invasion in a sockeye lake". Aquatic Invasions. 16 (1): 129–146. doi:10.3391/ai.2021.16.1.09.
  26. ^ a b c Marshall, Nathaniel; Stepien, Carol (2021). "Genetic trajectories of zebra and quagga mussel invasions across three decades: Lake Erie versus Hudson River populations". Aquatic Invasions. 16 (1): 147–166. doi:10.3391/ai.2021.16.1.10.
  27. ^ Larson, Diane L.; Phillips-Mao, Laura; Quiram, Gina; Sharpe, Leah; Stark, Rebecca; Sugita, Shinya; Weiler, Annie (2011-01). "A framework for sustainable invasive species management: Environmental, social, and economic objectives". Journal of Environmental Management. 92 (1): 14–22. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.08.025. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ^ a b c Lubchenco, Jane; Camp, Emma F.; Vargas, Cristian A.; Belhabib, Dyhia; Anna, Zuzy; Amon, Diva J.; Metaxas, Anna; Harden-Davies, Harriet (2023-10-02). "Priorities for progress towards Sustainable Development Goal 14 'Life below water'". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 7 (10): 1564–1569. doi:10.1038/s41559-023-02208-4. ISSN 2397-334X.
  29. ^ a b c Andriamahefazafy, M.; Touron-Gardic, G.; March, A.; Hosch, G.; Palomares, M.L.D.; Failler, P. (2022-07-16). "Sustainable development goal 14: To what degree have we achieved the 2020 targets for our oceans?". Ocean & Coastal Management. 227: 9. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106273 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  30. ^ Shackell, Nancy L.; Keith, David M.; Lotze, Heike K. (2021-04-06). "Challenges of Gauging the Impact of Area-Based Fishery Closures and OECMs: A Case Study Using Long-Standing Canadian Groundfish Closures". Frontiers in Marine Science. 8. doi:10.3389/fmars.2021.612859. ISSN 2296-7745.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  31. ^ Issifu, Ibrahim; Sumaila, U. Rashid (2020-11-20). "A Review of the Production, Recycling and Management of Marine Plastic Pollution". Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 8 (11): 945. doi:10.3390/jmse8110945. ISSN 2077-1312.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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