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Women In Ghana

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Women in Ghana have played a critical role in Ghanian society. There has been a slow increase in the political participation of Ghanian women throughout history.[1] Women are given equal rights under the constitution of Ghana, yet disparities in education, employment, and health for women remain prevalent.[2][3] Additionally, women have much less access to resources than men in Ghana do.[3] Women in both rural and urban areas face slightly different challenges.[4] Throughout Ghana, female-headed households are increasing.[3]

Multiple forms of violence against women still exist in Ghana.[5] In recent years, feminist organizations and women's rights groups have increased.[5][6][1] Efforts to bring about gender equality continue to grow in Ghana. The government of Ghana has signed on to numerous international goals and conventions to enhance women's rights in Ghana.

Politics

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Ghana does not have equal representation in politics. Although women are guaranteed political participation rights under the 1992 Ghana Constitution, there is a lack of female representation in government. There has never been a female president in Ghana. In 2012, 19 women occupied seats in Parliament, while 246 men occupied the rest of the seats.[7] In 2017, the number of women elected to Parliament grew, and 37 women were elected.[1] However, Ghanian women still make up only 13.5% of Parliament.[1] In the courts, the Chief Justice is Sophia Akuffo, the second women to be appointed to this position. The first women to hold be appointed as Chief Justice was Georgina Wood. Additionally, women only make up a small percentage of the total judges in high and Supreme Courts. In 2009, 23% of Supreme Court judges were women.[7]

There has been a slow increase of women in Parliament since the adoption of the multiparty system in 1992.[8] Ghana has taken multiple steps to increase equality in the political sphere. For example, the government signed and ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination (CEDAW). There are many institutions in Ghana that work to advance women's rights and welfare issues. Women's groups and activists in Ghana are demanding for gender polices and programs to improve the livelihood of women.[8] Additionally, the government has a ministry dedicated to women and Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection focuses on policy formation on issues that pertain specifically to women and children. Despite the efforts of NGO's and political parties female participation in politics in Ghana remains low.[1]

The lack of political participation from women in Ghana can be attributed to longstanding cultural norms.[9] The traditional belief that women in Ghana should not have responsibilities outside the home contributes to the deficiency of women in politics.[9] Leadership is also a skill that is traditionally associated with boys and men. When women in Ghana take leadership positions, they can face discrimination.[9]

Education

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Inequality in gender enrollment in school remains an issue in Ghana. Economic and cultural norms factor into the decision of whether a son or daughter will attend school if a family cannot afford to send multiple children.[2] Cultural belief remains that women and girls are only for reproduction, therefore boys are sent to receive an education as it is believed they will be the breadwinner for the family.[2] A study found that urban schools in Ghana averaged two boys for every one girl.[2] Additionally, in both rural and urban areas, boys are preferred over girls for school enrollment.[2]

Public university education in Ghana has been found to be inequitable.[10] Women only "make up 34.9% of tertiary enrollment," and admissions preferences students who come from wealthier backgrounds.[10]

Violence Against Women

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Women of all ages, socio-economic statuses, and geographic location in Ghana are affected by different forms of violence against women.[11][5][4] There are multiple forms of violence against women present in Ghana, such as domestic violence, rape, and female genital mutilation.[11][12] Violence against women in Ghana also includes emotional, psychological, and economic violence.[11]

Domestic violence is one of the most common forms of violence against women in Ghana.[5] A study done in 2015, led by the Institute of Development Studies, found that 27.7% of women in Ghana had experienced domestic violence within the last 12 months.[11] Many acts of violence against women in Ghana have gone unreported as there are social stigmas that are associated with these acts.[12][13][14] However, the number of cases of violence against women in Ghana has been increasing every year.[5]

Historically, Ghanian women have faced violence from certain cultural practices.[5] For example, Trokosi was a system used by the Ewe tribe, located in the Volta region of Ghana, to repay past crimes.[5][15] Oftentimes, young girls were given away to priests and would become concubines of that priest.[5][15] In 1998, a law was passed in Ghana that abolished "customary or ritual servitude."[5]

Efforts have been made by both the government and non-governmental organizations to end acts of violence against women. The Women and Juvenile Unit (WAJU), now known as the Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVSU), was established in 1998 for the purpose of handling crimes against women and children.[5][14][16] In 2001, the government created the Ministry of Women and Children's Affairs (MWCA) to help non-government organizations and the government in their efforts to address issues of violence against women.[5]

Domestic Violence

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One in three women in Ghana will be a victim of domestic violence in their lifetime.[5] Domestic violence can take different forms - physical, sexual, and emotional.[5][11] It has been reported that emotional violence is the most cited form of domestic violence in Ghana.[4] However, this may be due to continued social stigma around physical and sexual violence, therefore leaving many women to stay silent on the abuse they face.[4]

There are multiple factors that are believed to be influential in the high rates of domestic violence in Ghana. Cultural norms and practices play a large role in attitudes and perceptions of domestic violence. Traditional gender roles in Ghana keep women in the homes to care for the children, while men are expected to be the breadwinners. Spousal abuse is more common when women choose to follow a career outside the home.[17] Education is also linked to domestic violence.[18][4][19][20] Men who have higher education in Ghana generally do not condone physically abusing their wife.[18][4][19] A study done in the BMC Public Health journal found that it is "48% less likely for women to experience domestic violence when husbands had higher than secondary education."[4]

The practice of polygyny in Ghana also contributes to rates of domestic violence.[21] Women who are part of polygynous marriages generally experience higher rates of domestic violence.[21] Additionally, women who are in polygynous marriages are "more likely to come from households where their mothers experienced domestic violence."[21]

Women in urban areas face different rates of domestic violence than women in rural areas in Ghana.[4] The risk of women facing domestic violence increases by 35% if residing in urban areas.[4] This could be because "most of the women in urban areas may reside in slums or poor urban areas and/or may have higher wealth index (economic status) which may increase their risk of domestic violence."[4]

The Ghanian government has attempted to end domestic violence against women. The Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVSU) is a police unit specifically focused on cases about crimes against women and children.[4][11] There are currently two special courts that solely hear cases of gender-based violence.[4] In 2007, the Ghanian Parliament passed the Domestic Violence Act (Act 732).[11] This act condones multiple forms of domestic violence, including sexual, physical, emotional, economic, and physiological violence.[11]

Rape

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Rape is a major issue in Ghana.[12] It is estimated that 8% of women have been raped and 6% of girls have been raped in Ghana.[12] This is likely a huge underestimate as many women and girls do not report rape due to fears of social stigmatization and shame.[12] Gang rape is also prevalent in Ghana.[22] In 2016, all reported cases of gang rape included a female victim and all male perpetrators.[22] Many women and girls who are victims of gang rape know at least one of the males in the group attacking her.[22] Rape in Ghana is illegal under section 97 of The Criminal Code.[23]

Marital Rape

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Marital rape is also a major issue in Ghana.[13] When a woman marries in Ghana, it is a strong cultural belief that they are now under the authority of their husband.[13] Women are often treated as inferior to men. The Criminal Code in Ghana previously had a marriage exception, which stated "a person may revoke any consent which he has given to the use of force against him, and his consent when so revoked shall have no effect for justifying force save that the consent given by a husband or wife at marriage, for the purposes of the marriage, cannot be revoked until the parties are divorced or separated by a judgement or decree of a competent court."[24][13] In 2007, this marital rape exception was removed from the Criminal Code of Ghana. Despite legislation against marital rape, there remains a strong social view that the happenings inside the home are private matters that should not be publicly addressed.[13] Therefore, there has been criticism from Ghanians on prohibiting marital rape.[13]

Child Sexual Assault

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Young girls also face sexual assault in Ghana. 78% of child sexual assault victims know their offender.[25] There has been a consistent decrease in child sexual abuse cases since 2002.[25] However, there is a huge issue of underreporting of child sexual assault in Ghana.[25][16] One of the most common reasons cited for not reporting cases of child sexual assault is the belief that shame will be brought upon the victim and the victim's family.[25][16] Additionally, there is a lack of confidence in the law and police system.[26] The Children's Act of 1998 was passed in part to confront the issue of child sexual assault.[25][16] Despite legislative action against child sexual assault, cultural norms and practices allow for perpetrators to face little to no consequences.[16]

Female Genital Mutilation

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Female Genital Mutilation is prevalent in Northern Ghana and Ghana's Upper East Region.[14] It is estimated that 4% of women and girls in Ghana have undergone female genital mutilation.[27] Ghana has taken legislative action to end FGM. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was ratified in 1989, and Ghana declared to be against female circumcision.[14][27] The Ghanian Criminal Codes were amended in 1994 to include FGM as an offense.[14] Additionally, FGM is outlawed in the Domestic Violence Act of 2003.[14] Despite these governmental efforts, FGM remains an issue in Ghana.[14][27][28]

FGM in Ghana can be performed at multiple points in a girls life.[14] Babies can face FGM at birth if the mother is not circumcised.[14] FGM will be performed on many girls at puberty, as this is seen as a rite of puberty.[14] Additionally, FGM can be performed at death to insure the deceased woman is accepted into the ancestral world.[14] A study done in the Journal of Social Development found that education relates to preference of female circumcision - "men who are illiterate and those who have been to primary school are more likely to prefer circumcised women than those with secondary and higher education."[28]

Trafficking

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The exact number of women and girls involved in human trafficking in Ghana is unknown.[29] Girls and women are often trafficked into the sex trade, either in surrounding African countries or European countries.[29] Ghana has attempted to address human trafficking issues with the Human Trafficking Act of 2005, however trafficking remains a problem in Ghana.[6]

Witch Camps

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Witch Camps exist in Northern Ghana.[5] Women have been sent to these witch camps when their families or communities believe they have caused harm to the family.[5] The government has said they intend to close these camps down.[30]

Health

Violence against women is a public health issue. Media coverage of violence against women in Ghana fails to acknowledged the societal issue at hand. Oftentimes, cases of violence against women are presented as individual incidents and blames the victim for the event.

Abortion

Many women and girls will receive backstreet abortions due to the stigmatization of abortion in Ghana.

HIV/AIDS

  1. ^ a b c d e Apusigah, Agnes Atia; Adatuu, Roland (2017-01-01). "Enhancing Women's Political Fortunes in Ghana: Is a 50/50 Campaign Realistic?". Ghana Journal of Development Studies. 14 (2): 43–62. doi:10.4314/gjds.v14i2.3. ISSN 0855-6768.
  2. ^ a b c d e Mahama, Tia Abdul-Kabiru; Nkegbe, Paul Kwame (2017-01-01). "Gender Preference in Primary School Enrolment among Households in Northern Region, Ghana". Ghana Journal of Development Studies. 14 (1): 60–78. doi:10.4314/gjds.v14i1.4. ISSN 0855-6768.
  3. ^ a b c Awumbila, Mariama (2006). "Gender equality and poverty in Ghana: implications for poverty reduction strategies". GeoJournal. 67 (2): 149–161. doi:10.1007/s10708-007-9042-7. JSTOR 41148110. S2CID 154300298.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Owusu Ashah & Agbemafle (2016). "Determinants of Domestic Violence Against Women in Ghana" (PDF). BMC Public Health. 16: 368. doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3041-x. PMC 4852424. PMID 27139013.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Amoakohene, Margaret Ivy (2004-12-01). "Violence against women in Ghana: a look at women's perceptions and review of policy and social responses". Social Science & Medicine. 59 (11): 2373–2385. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.04.001. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 15450710.
  6. ^ a b Lawrance, Benjamin N. (2010). "From Child Labor "Problem" to Human Trafficking "Crisis": Child Advocacy and Anti-Trafficking Legislation in Ghana". International Labor and Working-Class History. 78 (78): 63–88. doi:10.1017/S0147547910000128. JSTOR 40931304. S2CID 144578193.
  7. ^ a b Dzorgbo, Dan-Bright (2016). "Exploratory Study of the Current Status of the Rights and Welfare of Ghanaian Women: Taking Stock and Mapping Gaps for New Actions". African Journal of Reproductive Health. 20 (3): 136–141. doi:10.29063/ajrh2016/v20i3.18.
  8. ^ a b Musah, Baba Iddrisu (2013). "Women and Political Decision Making: Perspectives from Ghana's Parliament". Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences. 5: 443–476.
  9. ^ a b c Bukari, Francis Issahaku Malongza; Apusigah, Agnes Atia; Abagre, Cynthia Itboh (2017-01-01). "Affirmative Action as a Strategy for Promoting Women's Participation in Politics in the Frafra Traditional Area of Ghana". Ghana Journal of Development Studies. 14 (2): 121–141. doi:10.4314/gjds.v14i2.7. ISSN 0855-6768.
  10. ^ a b Yusif, Hadrat; Yussof, Ishak; Osman, Zulkifly (2013). "Public university entry in Ghana: Is it equitable?". International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l'Education. 59 (1): 7–27. JSTOR 42636125.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h "Domestic Violence in Ghana: Incidence, Attitudes, Determinants and Consequences" (PDF). Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Ghana Statistical Services (GSS) and Associates: 1–275. 2016.
  12. ^ a b c d e Aryee, Edna (2013). "I was raped: The Psychological Effects of Rape Among Liberian & Ghanian Women in Ghana". Women's Health & Urban Life. 1: 98–115.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Archampong & Sampson (2010). "Marital Rape in Ghana: Legal Options for Achieving State Accountability". Canadian Journal of Women and the Law. 2: 506–534.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Ako, Matilda Aberese; Akweongo, Patricia (2009). "The limited effectiveness of legislation against female genital mutilation and the role of community beliefs in Upper East Region, Ghana". Reproductive Health Matters. 17 (34): 47–54. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(09)34474-2. JSTOR 40647445. PMID 19962637. S2CID 33876409.
  15. ^ a b Boaten, Abayie (2001). African Women and Children:Crisis and Response. United States: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 91–93. ISBN 0-275-96218-0.
  16. ^ a b c d e Laird, Siobhan (2002). "The 1998 Children's Act: Problems of Enforcement in Ghana". The British Journal of Social Work. 32 (7): 893–905. doi:10.1093/bjsw/32.7.893. JSTOR 23716561.
  17. ^ Hanmer, Lucia & Klugman, Jeni. “Exploring Women’s Agency and Empowerment in Developing Countries: Where Do We Stand?” Feminist Economics 22, No. 1 (2016): 237-263.
  18. ^ a b TAKYI, BAFFOUR K.; MANN, JESSE (2006). "Intimate Partner Violence in Ghana, Africa: The Perspectives of Men Regarding Wife Beating". International Journal of Sociology of the Family. 32 (1): 61–78. JSTOR 23028786.
  19. ^ a b Osei-Tutu & Ampadu (2017). "Domestic Violence against Women in Ghana: The Attitudes of Men toward Wife-Beating". Journal of International Women's Studies. 4: 106–116 – via JSTOR.
  20. ^ Tenkorang, Owusu, Yeboah, Bannerman (2013). "Factors Influencing Domestic and Marital Violence against Women in Ghana" (PDF). Journal of Family Violence. 8: 771–781. doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3041-x. PMC 4852424. PMID 27139013.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  21. ^ a b c Ickowitz & Mohanty (2015). "Why Would She? Polygyny and Women's Welfare in Ghana". Feminist Economics. 21 (2): 77–104. doi:10.1080/13545701.2014.992931. S2CID 153839421.
  22. ^ a b c Quarshie, Emmanuel Nii-Boye; Davies, Priscilla Ayebea; Badasu, Mawuena Ivanna Adzoa; Tagoe, Theophilus; Otoo, Pearl Ama; Afriyie, Patricia Opoku (2017-09-28). "Multiple perpetrator rape in Ghana: offenders, victims and offence characteristics". Journal of Sexual Aggression. 24 (1): 125–141. doi:10.1080/13552600.2017.1378024. ISSN 1355-2600. S2CID 149398298.
  23. ^ Criminal Code(Section 97) (1960) (Ghana) [Criminal Code]
  24. ^ Criminal Code (Section 42g) (1960) (Ghana) [Criminal Code]
  25. ^ a b c d e Boakye, Krofi (2009). "Culture and Nondisclosure of Child Sexual Abuse in Ghana: A Theoretical and Empirical Exploration". Law & Social Inquiry. 4 (4): 951–979. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2009.01170.x. JSTOR 40539387. S2CID 144669534.
  26. ^ Rondini, Simona; Krugu, John Kingsley (2009). "Knowledge, Attitude and Practices Study on Reproductive Health Among Secondary School Students in Bolgatanga, Upper East Region, Ghana". African Journal of Reproductive Health / La Revue Africaine de la Santé Reproductive. 13 (4): 51–66. JSTOR 27802622.
  27. ^ a b c Muthumbi, Jane; Svanemyr, Joar; Scolaro, Elisa; Temmerman, Marleen; Say, Lale (2015). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Literature Review of the Current Status of Legislation and Policies in 27 African Countries and Yemen". African Journal of Reproductive Health / La Revue Africaine de la Santé Reproductive. 19 (3): 32–40. JSTOR 24877829. PMID 26897911.
  28. ^ a b Sakeah, Hodgson (2007). "Factors Associated with Males' Intention to Circumcise their Daughters in Northern Ghana". Journal of Social Development in Africa. 1: 71–88.
  29. ^ a b Ansah, Nancy (2006). "Structural Relations of the Sex Trade and Its Link to Trafficking: The Case of Ghana". Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity. 70 (70): 100–106. JSTOR 4066739 – via JSTOR.
  30. ^ Whitaker, Kati (September 1, 2012). "Ghana Witch Camps: Widows' Lives in Exile". BBC News.
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