User:Miriamchen 0426/sandbox

History

Rising income for households in the 1950s, along with a gradual shift in eating habits, meant that consumers were purchasing more expensive foods such as meats and fresh vegetables. This threatened the market of many staple foods such as the potato. In addition to this the popularity of convenience foods increased after World War II, as many households were too busy to regularly cook meals. Therefore the surge in demand for connivence foods resulted in increased funding for food processing research; as many of the connivence foods at the time suffered from issues such as lengthy preparation time and nutrient deficiencies(2).

In 1953 research done at the Eastern Regional Research Center (ERRC) in Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, allowed two processes for producing dehydrated potatoes to emerge: potato granules and potato flakes (2). The production of granules eventually declined as although they have a long shelf-life, there are certain disadvantages to using them in comparison w potato flakes. First, in the process of obtaining potato granules, the constant exposure to mixing and drying equipment potentially damages the potato cells before they make it out of the process. Second, it was relatively expensive to package in relation to the amount of product packed (1). Lastly, potato granules do not re-hydrate well, resulting in a less appealing texture for consumers. Potato flakes eventually became the go-to method for producing dehydrated potatoes.

John Sullivan, James Cording, Miles Willard and Eugene Strolle at the USDA Eastern Regional Research Center, circa 1955

Studies conducted at the ERRC in 1954-1955 by chemical engineers James Cording and Miles J. Willard yielded several breakthroughs in potato dehydration. First, it was concluded that single-drum driers yielded denser flakes that are cheaper to package and thus are superior to double-drum driers (3). Another breakthrough was the utilization of a three-step cooking sequence called the “Philadelphia Cook”. This cooking and dehydrating process was the method that best maintained the structure of the potato cells.The entire dehydration process takes less than a minute to finish and yields a product that is consistent in appearance and flavor. (2)

First, the potatoes are peeled, trimmed, and sliced to ⅝ inch thickness. Then a pre-cook between 150°F to 165°F takes place to gelatinize the starches in the potatoes but not soften the potato cells. The resulting potatoes are still firm and prevents the final product from sticky. Afterwards, the potatoes are cooled in cold water so they further harden. Steam cookers are then used to give the potatoes a final cook. It is important not to overcook the potatoes during this step as it causes the final product to have a poor texture and flavor. The potatoes are then mashed immediately after cooking and additives are added into the mash before the drying process. Finally, the mash is moved onto a drum drier. Single-drum driers allow for thicker and more uniform sheets compared to double-drum driers. In this process, the moisture content of the mash is reduced to roughly 6%. The product then comes off of the drum-driers as continuous sheets, which can then be broken up into potato flakes. (2)

Texture

Virtually every aspect of the manufacturing process of instant mashed potatoes is aimed at replicating the texture of traditional homemade mashed potatoes. From analyzing the moisture and starch content of the potatoes at the beginning of production, to preparation in the home, it is crucial that the ideal texture is obtained.(4) Texture profile analysis (TPA) is a method designed to standardize the sensory description of food texture using set characteristics. (5) Using modern technology, samples can be tested and quantified for their hardness, gumminess, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and springiness. (6)

Consumers demand that instant mashed potatoes are light and fluffy, as if they prepared from scratch at home. Extracellular starch however occurs when starch cells rupture during thermal processing, resulting in an undesirable, gummy consistency (4). As these unwanted starch molecules are ultimately the greatest contributor to the texture of mashed potatoes, several measures are taken to ensure a desirable product. The initial processing of the potatoes has the largest impact on the finished product. Methods of production vary slightly, but the greatest factors are temperature and time cooking in water. (6)

Food additives are used to extend the shelf life of the product, but they also add to its texture. Monoglycerides and triglycerides are primarily used just before drying to form a starch complex, essentially protecting the starch granules. They also act as an emulsifier. Mashed potatoes are considered a dispersed system of potato cells suspended in a continuous liquid phase of varying composition, typically milk or butter that is added at the time of preparation (4). Mono and triglycerides act to maintain these permanent dispersions. Sodium acid pyrophosphate is another food additive most often found in dairy products. Valued for its emulsification properties, it binds with calcium to create a matrix of casein micelles that homogenize fat molecules. (7)

Along with the production of instant mashed potatoes, equal consideration is given its reconstitution. Just as the temperature and moisture content was given great consideration at the beginning of the process, the quantity of milk and butter added, as well as heating instructions plays a major role in the consumer’s final product. If the product is to be frozen, all the parameters of the TPA except cohesiveness have been found to increase, resulting in a less desirable product. Higher temperatures are associated with lower TPA score and an increased firmness, most likely as a result of the gelatinization of starch molecules (6).

Potato Selection

Machine Vision System

At the very beginning of the process of creating instant mashed potatoes is the potato section and grading process. All provided harvested potatoes cannot be used in the creation of processed potato products; before they are used they must be inspected. In the past, human inspection and selection of potatoes was utilized during the entire potato grading process, but since has become obsolete due to problems with inconsistency, inefficient use of time and expensive labor costs. (8). Machine Vision systems are now more commonly used in order to detect size, shape, and colour defects. The High-speed Quality Inspection of Potatoes (HIQUIP) system (a type of Machine Vision system) incorporates conveyor lanes to transport the potatoes to and from the vision unit. Dust and dirt are removed before inspection by washing. Potatoes in the vision unit are inspected based on outward roughness, tuber greening, pressure spots, general damage and tuber cracks (8). The system utilizes several methods including multivariate discriminant analysis to asses colour, fourier domain shape separation and statistical approaches for blemish identification (9). Once the quality of the potatoes are determined, those that meet the standard based on colour, shape and size will be sent forward to start the process of becoming instant mashed potatoes.

Processing

There are several variations when it comes to processing of instant mashed potatoes, from the choice of potatoes to the choice of packaging material (10). Instant mashed potatoes are usually made from potato flakes, though some may also use potato granules. There is much controversy over the methods of conventional production of potato flakes and the conventional production may not “allo[w] potato processors to produce suitable flakes from potatoes” (13). The general production of potato flakes is summarized below.

Drum Dryer

The general production process typically consists of three main steps. The first step involves removal of undesirable particles, peeling/cleaning of the potatoes and also inspection. When potatoes arrive at a manufacturer, the first thing is to get rid of the stones, sand, and other particles from the potatoes to avoid damage on the other machineries (11). The manufacturers then wash the peeled potatoes and inspect them to determine their quality. Further unwanted particles on the potatoes are then removed by hand (11). The second step includes cutting, blanching, cooling, cooking and transferring the product into the drum dryer. After the inspection of the potatoes, a Hydro cutter cuts the potatoes into smaller pieces so they can go through the dosing equipment (11). Then the potatoes are transferred into a blancher; after the blancher the potatoes are placed into a cooler then into a cooker where they are cooked until they become mashed (11). After cooking is complete, additives are added. The main purpose of cooking is to inactivate enzymes that soften the intercellular bonds to create the right texture for the flakes (10). However, this method of blanching, cooling and cooking might not be the best way to prepare the potato flakes. U.S. Patent No. 6,066,353 states that ‘blanching, cooling and cooking’ method might promote retrogradation of starch and make the formation of a machineable sheet more difficult (13). On the other hand, Lamberti et al. (2004) argues that the blanching and cooling step prior to cooking the potatoes have a positive influence on the texture of the final product (4). The potato mash is then transferred into a drum dryer and spread out equally as thin sheets by the rollers. A double-drum drier was initially used in this step as it is capable of removing up to 75% of the moisture in the potatoes in roughly twenty seconds (2). Quick drying of the potatoes prevented the potato cells from rupturing, which causes the final product to be pasty and inedible. Eventually, researchers James Cording and Miles J. Willard concluded that a single-drum drier is ultimately the preferable choice as it yielded denser flakes that were also less costly to package. Compared to the double-drum driers, single drum driers produced thicker and more uniform sheets. The process of quick-drying with a single-drum drier was considered a major breakthrough. The third step involves the drying, transporting, and packaging of the potatoes. The processed potatoes come off the drum drier as continuous sheets, which are then broken into flakes. After the drum dryer, the thin film of potato mash is scraped off and transported by airflow to the Mill sifters - the purpose of these mill sifters is to create uniform flakes (11). Then finally, the potato flakes are packaged in the packaging machines. Most instant mashed potatoes have a shelf life of 12 months from production date, and it should be stored in a cool and dry area free from odours (12).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jc1WCw-Nhxo

Food additives

A number of different food additives are needed to produce instant mashed potatoes. The role of these additives is to give the product desirable qualities such as having a long shelf life, great texture and taste. Moreover, the processing and production of instant mashed potatoes is closely tied to the additives present. One of the first steps in the preparation of instant mashed potatoes involves boiling, mashing and drying potatoes (4). During these steps the starch granules present in the potato may get damaged; although the damage would not be noticeable at this step, the final product will have an undesirable texture and mouth feel (4). Therefore, before the drying step in processing mono-glycerides are added. The role of these mono-glycerides is to form complexes with the starch molecules, namely with amylose, essentially shielding the starch molecules from degradation (17). This allows for an end product with the desired texture. Compounds within the potato that are not water soluble are another issue that arise from the production process of instant mashed potatoes. In order to create a homogenous mixture, both during processing and for later consumption, an emulsifier must be added. An emulsifier is an agent which is “amphipathic”. This means it is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic, essentially holding the two immiscible compounds in a suspension (14). The emulsifier used in mashed potatoes are tri-glycerides. Following processing, instant mashed potatoes are expected to have an extended shelf life, therefore additives must be added. One of the most commonly used preservatives is citric acid (14). Citric acid aids in preservation by inhibiting the growth of thermophillic bacteria (14) and most notably for inhibiting the growth and toxin production of C. botulinum (16). In additon to citric acid, tocopherols are also added to prevent the product from going rancid (14). Tocopherols, are a family of Vitamin E compounds, the –ol in their name indicates that they contain an alcohol functional group. The alcohol functional group is of significance as it capable of preventing free radicals from causing oxidative damage. Free radicals are uncharged molecules which have an unpaired electron capable of causing a domino like effect, essentially causing other molecules to become damaged by leeching electrons. This leeching of electrons from free radicals is called oxidative damage and is the cause of rancidity, flavor, colour and nutrient loss in food (14). Thus, having tocopherols prevents the free radical chain reaction from occurring, delaying the onset of rancidity, increasing the product shelf life. It is also interesting to note that the use of tocopherols with citric acid has a synergistic effect (17), making both the tocopherols and citric acid even more powerful preservatives. The final problem incurred during instant mashed potato processing is the onset of the browning reaction, which is somewhat delayed by the additon of tocopherols, however this isn't quite enough (4). Sodium bisulfite and sodium acid pyrophosphate are also added. Both these sodium salts prevent the browning reaction from occurring (17) providing the finished product with a desirable colour.

References

1. Beck, R.G., Rainwater, J.H. (1969) U.S. Patent No. 3,459,562.
2. Food Dehydration Technology (2007, April 18) Retrieved from http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/fooddehydration.html#citation
3. Willard, J. (1970) U.S. Patent No. 3,535,128
4. Lamberti, M., Geiselmann, A., Conde-Petit, B., & Escher, F. (2004). Starch transformation and structure development in production and reconstitution of potato flakes. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 37(4), 417-427. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2003.10.015
5. Bourne M.C. (1978). Texture profile analysis: Food acceptability. Istituto Sperimentale per la Valorizzazione Tecnologica dei Prodotti Agricoli, Milan (Italy).
6. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0023643803002020)Canet, Wenceslao (2005) Dolores Alvarez, Maria Fernández, Cristina Estrella Tortosa. The effect of sample temperature on instrumental and sensory properties of mashed potato products. International Journal of Food Science & Technology. Vol 40, Issue 5. ISSN - 1365-2621Blackwell Science Ltd. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00945.x. DOI: - 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00945.x
7. Gupta, S. K., Gupta, S. K., Karahadian, C., & Lindsay, R. C. (04/01/1984). Effect of emulsifier salts on textural and flavor properties of processed cheese’s. Journal of dairy science: American Dairy Science Association]. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(84)81367-3
8. Noordam, J. C., Otten, G. W., Timmermans, T. J., & Zwol, B. H. (2000). High-speed potato grading and quality inspection based on a color vision system. Machine Vision Applications in Industrial Inspection VIII.
9. Tao, Y., Morrow, C., Hienemann, P., & Sommer, J. (1990). Automated machine vision inspection of potatoes. Paper - American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

10. McArthur, W.H., Elliot, S.D., Killian, K.A. (2011). U.S. Patent No. 8,017,173. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
11. Potato flakes. (n.d.). Retrieved March 14, 2016, from http://www.onions-potatoes.com/processing/processing-potatoes/processing-potatoes-flakes.php
12. Potato Granules and potato flakes manufacturer. (n.d.). Retrieved March 14, 2016, from http://www.solan.pl/potato-flakes-and-granules.html#up
13. Villagran, M.M., Beverly, D.J., Williamson, L. (2000). US Patent No. 6,066,353. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark office.
14. Saltmarsh, M., ebrary eBooks, Royal Society of Chemistry (Great Britain), Ebrary Academic Complete (Canada) Subscription Collection, & Knovel Food Science Library - Academic Collection. (2013;2014;). Essential guide to food additives (4th;4;4;4th; ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publishing.
15. In Furia, T. E., & Chemical Rubber Company. (1972). CRC handbook of food additives. Cleveland: CRC Press.
16. Branen, A. L., & CRC Press. (2002;2001;2005;1999;). Food additives (2nd, rev. and expand;2; ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker
17. Smith, J., Hong-Shum, L., & Wiley-Blackwell Online Books. (2011). Food additives data book (2nd ed.). Ames, Iowa;Chichester, West Sussex;: Wiley-Blackwell.