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1988 Nepal Earthquake
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| UTC time | 1988-08-20 23:09:09 |
|---|---|
| ISC event | 429573 |
| USGS-ANSS | ComCat |
| Local date | 21 August 1988 [1] |
| Local time | 04:39:11 NST[1] |
| Duration | 9.5 seconds [1][2] |
| Magnitude | 6.9 Mw [1] |
| Depth | 57.4 km (35.7 mi) |
| Epicenter | 26°45′18″N 86°36′58″E / 26.755°N 86.616°E |
| Fault | Main Frontal Thrust-Main Boundary Thrust [1] Indian plate - Eurasian Plate |
| Max. intensity | MMI VIII (Severe) [1] |
| Casualties | 1003 deaths, 9979 injuries [2][3] |
The 1988 Nepal earthquake (Nepali: विसं २०४५ को भूकम्प) occurred on the 20th August 1988 at 23:09:09 UTC and 21st August 1988 at 04:39:11 (Indian Standard Time). [1] The earthquake struck primarily eastern Nepal near the Indian border, and affected much of northern Bihar in India. The earthquake extended into central regions of Nepal, including Kathmandu Valley. The epicentre was recorded in the Udayapur region of eastern Nepal, 5km from Triyuga. [4] Which is why it is also known as the Udayapur earthquake. The earthquake hit a magnitude of 6.9Mw. [1] This was the largest earthquake to hit the region in Nepal since the 1934 Nepal-India earthquake which hit a magnitude of 8Mw and killed over 10,000 people. [5][6] Since then, Nepal has been devastated by a 7.8Mw earthquake in April 2015, also known as the Gorkha earthquake, which claimed the lives of over 9000 people. [7]
The entire region lies above two converging tectonic plates, the Indian and Eurasian plate. These plates are converging at a rate of 40-50 mm/year. [8] The continuous colliding of continental plates results in a seismic energy build-up, which is released in the form of tremors. [9] The Indian plate is continuously submerging beneath the Eurasian plate, rendering the entire of Hindu-Kush-Himalaya region prone to earthquakes.[4] There are three major thrust faults in the region, the Main Central Thrust (MCT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT). [10] This earthquake occurred in the Siwalik sedimentary region, between the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), and involved oblique faulting, with a combination of strike-slip and thrust fault movements contributing to the release of tectonic stress. [11] [10]
Within 39 days of the initial earthquake The Department of Mines and Geology recorded 155 aftershocks. [11] Six of which had a magnitude greater than 4Mw. [12][1]
The earthquake resulted in significant loss of life. The death toll was reported as approximately 1003 between Nepal and Northern Bihar.[3] [2] The aftermath of the earthquake was worsened by hillside erosion, landslide and floods, which increased the death toll by almost 300.[11] There was significant damage to buildings and infrastructure including schools and hospitals, which left up to half a million people homeless, which had a significant impact of health and desolated the economy. [13][3]This led to overcrowding and a lack of sanitation, which contributed to increased rates of gut and respiration conditions. Local and international response relief efforts were hindered by a combination of many factors including heavy monsoon weather, mountainous terrain, infrastructure damage, lack of helicopters, and lack of coordinated response frameworks. Many lessons came from this disaster in terms of disaster management and the structural stability of buildings.[3]
| Country | Deaths | Injuries | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
 Nepal
|
721 | 6213 | [3] |
 India
|
282 | 3766 | [3] |
| Total | 1003 | 9979 |
Geographical and Physical Impact
[edit]The widespread destruction and causalities from the 1988 Nepal-Bihar earthquake can be attributed to the region's geology and geo-technical damage, from soil liquefaction, landslides, ground fissuring, cracking, and subsidence of embankments.[14][12] More than 700 fatalities and significant number of injuries were recorded, predominantly in the eastern plains and mountains as well as in some areas in the central mountainous region of Nepal.[3][4] The earthquake caused extensive damage to critical infrastructures, including houses, public buildings, schools, roads, bridges, as well as irrigation canals and water supplies.[4] Damage to the Easter highway at several places and disruption to telecommunications hindered access to the hardest hit areas.[15]The border state of Bihar in India accounted for over 200 deaths and numerous injuries.[3]
Geo-technical Impact
[edit]Ground fissures can cause damage to buildings, utility infrastructures and impede disaster management efforts.[16] Ground fissuring was a prominent feature in the Terai plains and mountains.[12]
Soil liquefaction, evidenced as ground oscillations and sand boils resulted in sand clogging of dug, tube and boring wells in the Terai plains and the districts of Dhanusha and Siraha, causing scarcity of drinking water and irrigation resources.[12]
Landslides triggered by the earthquake were exhibited by slumps in thick soil, debris, rock flow, and avalanche in the regions of the earthquake epicentre, and the landslide prone regions of Sindhuli, Udaypur and Bhojpur.[12] Extensive damage and destruction were caused by the earthquake triggered landslides in these regions, including damage to roads.[17]
Infrastructure damage
[edit]
In addition to the magnitude of earthquakes, the local geology and the building techniques also affect the extent of damage and devastation.[18] The major causes of fatalities and injuries were from the structural damages to the buildings caused by ground vibration, liquefaction, and landslides.[12] Similar damages to buildings occurred in the northern region of Bihar in India.[19] Considerable damage to buildings were reported in the eastern city of Dharan, rendering thousands of people homeless.[20] The buildings were not constructed to withstand the geological forces of nature as the brick masonry buildings used traditional and poor quality of construction, lacked maintenance, and the foundation designs were inadequate to resist the effects of liquefaction.[19] The lack of regard for the risks of earthquake was evident from the fact, that until 1994, there was no legislation or protocol requirement for earthquake resistant building designs and construction in Nepal; the 1988 earthquake instigated the development of safety initiatives and building codes.[21]
Human Vulnerabilities
[edit]Reports from a Japanese natural disaster study group showed that the causalities were higher among females, children and the elderly, compared to young males, due to their reduced ability to escape from the physical impact of the disaster.[3] In the aftermath of 1988 Nepal earthquakes, personnel at the British military hospital based at Dharan described their experience of lack of facilities in dealing with mass causalities that was compounded by communication loss. They also highlighted the plight of pregnant ladies in labour.[22] The earthquake struck at the non -school going hours, preventing causalities. However, the extensive damage to school buildings affected approximately 300,000 children for several months.[23]
Local Response
[edit]Following the 1988 earthquake, the Government of Nepal reacted swiftly, mobilising resources, and coordinating efforts across various agencies. The Royal Nepal Army, police, local officials, and the Nepalese Red Cross collaborated to address the hardest-hit areas, such as Dharan and Dhankuta, despite the government’s limited resources[24][25]. Search and rescue teams were immediately dispatched from the capital, Kathmandu, to Nepal’s Eastern Zone, while the Royal Nepal Army played a key role in transporting survivors to hospitals. Helicopters were essential in reaching isolated, remote regions to transport survivors to medical facilities[24][25]
Heavy monsoon rains followed soon after the earthquake, significantly hindering local relief efforts. The effects of these rains were especially challenging in mountainous regions with poor road infrastructure, where helicopters were the only viable option for reaching affected communities. The Nepalese Red Cross provided essential supplies, including food, clothing, blankets, and utensils, particularly in areas where local government support was insufficient. To coordinate the relief, the Home Secretary established the Central Disaster Relief Committee, which allocated over $300,000USD in disaster relief funds to the Eastern Zone[24][25]. The committee also set up the Central Earthquake Relief and Reconstruction Fund, which raised $1.3 million USD from local institutions and individuals.
International Response
[edit]The United Nations Disaster Relief Organisation (UNDRO) quickly recognised the extent of the disaster and launched an international appeal, focusing on monetary donations rather than material aid[25]. This approach enabled local procurement and allowed Nepal to handle the challenging conditions with helicopter support. The initial phase of operations was estimated to require $500,000USD, highlighting the critical role of international contributions.
The United States was one of the major donors, contributing over $380,000 to supply medical materials, disaster consultants, and plastic sheeting for temporary shelters. Japan also provided critical support, including around 2,000 blankets, medical supplies, and additional relief items, valued at approximately $450,000USD[25]. Other key contributors included the United Kingdom and the European Community, which both offered funds and dispatched medical teams. UNICEF and the World Health Organisation supported the effort by supplying technical expertise for medical and hygiene needs
Despite this extensive support, the international response encountered significant logistical challenges. The mountainous terrain, combined with widespread road damage, limited the efficiency of many relief efforts. Helicopters were in short supply and remained the only reliable means of accessing the most affected areas, slowing the distribution of crucial resources. Coordination issues also contributed to delays, emphasising the need for robust disaster response frameworks that can aid countries facing challenging conditions[25]
Short- and longer-term health consequences
[edit]Short-Term Health Consequences
[edit]Immediate Injuries and Fatalities
[edit]The 1988 earthquake in Nepal caused significant loss of life and property. The earthquake resulted in 709 deaths and at least 1,016 injuries, affecting about 300,000 people. The earthquake destroyed or damaged 66,000 houses, as well as many public buildings, and caused severe damage to roads, bridges and utility systems.[24]
The immediate aftermath of the earthquake saw a surge in injuries due to the collapse of buildings and other structures. Many of these injuries were severe, including crush injuries and fractures, requiring urgent medical attention.[26]
Outbreaks of Infectious Diseases
[edit]The destruction of healthcare infrastructure and the displacement of populations led to an increased risk of infectious disease outbreaks. Poor sanitation, lack of clean water, and overcrowded shelters contributed to the spread of diseases such as diarrhoea, respiratory infections, and fever.[26]
Mental Health Impacts
[edit]The psychological trauma from the earthquake led to an increase in mental health conditions, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression (MD), among survivors.[26]
Although it was not possible to find a mental health paper related to the 1988 earthquake, there is a study on adult survivors of the 2015 Nepal earthquake, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Coping Strategies in Adult Survivors of the Post-Earthquake. The study investigated the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its use of coping strategies among Nepalese earthquake survivors. The results showed that 24.10% of the survivors were diagnosed with PTSD and the main symptoms included intrusive memories. The prevalence was significantly associated with the survivors' age, gender, education level, and injuries sustained in the earthquake, and it was found that females, the elderly, the illiterate, and individuals injured in the earthquake were more likely to suffer from PTSD. The conclusions emphasize that earthquakes have a profound impact on the mental health status of survivors, especially 10 months after the disaster, and that the high prevalence of PTSD suggests the need for psychological interventions.[27]
Long-Term Health Consequences
[edit]Impact on Education and Human Capital
[edit]The 1988 Nepal earthquake had a significant impact on the educational attainment of children in the worst-affected areas, with the likelihood of completing secondary and tertiary education decreasing by 13.8 percent and 10 percent, respectively. Children from lower caste groups were the most severely affected, with a 17.6 percent reduction in the likelihood of completing secondary education, while children from higher castes were not significantly affected. At the same time, male children perform significantly better than female children in schooling, indicating gender bias in society. These reductions in education levels are directly linked to future health status, with less educated populations typically facing higher health risks and poorer health management skills. The study highlights that natural disasters not only affect education but also have a profound negative impact on children's human capital accumulation and health.[28]
Impact on physical health
[edit]Long-term impacts on physical health include chronic diseases resulting from untreated injuries and the ongoing risk of infectious diseases due to compromised healthcare systems and living conditions.[26]
Lessons emerged from this disaster
[edit]Emergency Response and Rescue
[edit]Resources and Experience in Medical Rescue
[edit]In the event of a natural disaster, having a well-organised cadre of medical and paramedical personnel can effectively respond to many casualties caused by an earthquake before the arrival of medical reinforcements[22]. Following the 1988 earthquake, the B.P. Koirala Memorial Hospital in Dharan responded within an hour, utilizing pre-planned resources and effective triage to treat the injured. This highlights the importance of pre-disaster medical training, resource allocation, and rapid mobilization of personnel.
International Assistance
[edit]In the aftermath of the earthquake, international rescue organisations and volunteer teams played an important supporting role. This shows that in resource-poor developing countries, international assistance and transnational cooperation are very important and can greatly enhance the efficiency and quality of disaster relief[22].
Seismic and Structural Safety of Buildings
[edit]Nepal originally did not have a country-specific building code, and its building codes were designed based on those of other countries[3]. After the earthquake, the government realised the importance of developing and implementing seismic codes, and in the 1990s, the National Building Code of Nepal(NBC) was developed, based on international standards, and officially promulgated in 2004.
Infrastructure
[edit]The relatively weak infrastructure (especially medical facilities, transportation systems and communication networks) in many parts of Nepal was particularly exposed after the earthquake. The destruction of roads and bridges after the earthquake resulted in the inability of relief supplies and personnel to reach the affected areas promptly. Future earthquakes could cause even greater damage unless regular reinforcements and countermeasures are implemented[29].
House Construction
[edit]Traditional rural houses in Nepal, built with mud, stone, and brick, were severely damaged during the earthquake. In contrast, reinforced concrete buildings, like water tanks and high-rise structures, withstood the tremors. This highlighted the need for earthquake-resistant designs in traditional housing, prompting government focus on building safer, low-cost rural structures.
Public Education and Disaster Prevention
[edit]Public Awareness
[edit]After the 1988 Nepal earthquake, several Emergency Disaster Risk Reduction (EDRR) programmes were implemented in Nepal[30]. These programmes have helped to raise awareness of the risks, and instead of ignoring seismic hazards fatalistically or as ‘acts of God’ as in the past, earthquakes are increasingly seen as preventable and mitigable disasters.
School Education
[edit]The Nepal Seismic Safety Centre (NSET) initiated the School Seismic Safety Program in 1998. The program not only helped to strengthen school buildings and their non-structural components, but also provided an opportunity to train local artisans, raise awareness, develop and disseminate technology, and enforce building codes[31]. It was later expanded to include first aid training, disaster response plans, and the integration of Disaster Risk Management into school curricula[23].
Emergency Response Training
[edit]NSET collaborated with the Ministry of Home Affairs to conduct training for first responders, including the Nepal Army, Nepal Police, and Nepal Red Cross Society. The training focused on medical first aid and collapsed structure search and rescue, enhancing the capacity of local teams to handle emergencies effectively.
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i "M 6.9 - 9 km WSW of Triyuga, Nepal". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
- ^ a b c "National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972)". National Oceanic & Atmosphere Administration (NOAA). Retrieved 17 November 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fujiwara, T.; Sato, T.; Kubo, T.; Murakami, H.O. (1989). "On the 21 August 1988 earthquake in the Nepal-India border region". Japanese Group for the Study of Natural Disaster Science. Reconnaissance Report No B-63-4.
- ^ a b c d Chaulagain, Hemchandra; Gautam, Dipendra; Rodrigues, Hugo (2018), "Revisiting Major Historical Earthquakes in Nepal", Impacts and Insights of Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal, Elsevier, pp. 1–17, ISBN 978-0-12-812808-4, retrieved 2024-11-03
- ^ Jain, Sudhir K. (August 1992). "On Better Engineering Preparedness: Lessons from the 1988 Bihar Earthquake". Earthquake Spectra. 8 (3): 391–402. doi:10.1193/1.1585687. ISSN 8755-2930.
- ^ Whelpton, John (2021). "Earthquakes in Nepali History". In Hutt, Michael; Liechty, Mark; Lotter, Stefanie (eds.). Epicentre to aftermath: rebuilding and remembering in the wake of Nepal's earthquakes. Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-83405-6.
- ^ "M 7.8 - 67 km NNE of Bharatpur, Nepal". United States Geological Survey. 29 October 2024. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "USGS Open-File Report 2010‒1083–J: Seismicity of the Earth 1900‒2010 Himalaya and Vicinity". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-12.
- ^ Shanker, D.; Paudyal, Harihar; Singh, H. N. (2012-08-31). "Discourse on Seismotectonics of Nepal Himalaya and Vicinity:Appraisal to Earthquake Hazard". Journal of Geo-sciences. 1 (1): 1–15. doi:10.5923/j.geo.20110101.01. ISSN 2163-1697.
- ^ a b Ghimire, Subesh; Kasahara, Minoru (October 2007). "Source process of the Ms = 6.6, Udayapur earthquake of Nepal–India border and its tectonic implication". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 31 (2): 128–138. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.04.007.
- ^ a b c Pande, M. R.; Nicolas, M. (1991-12-01). "The aftershock sequence of the Udaypur (Nepal) earthquake of August 20, 1988". Journal of Nepal Geological Society. 7. doi:10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32589. ISSN 2676-1378.
- ^ a b c d e f Dikshit, A. M. (1991-12-01). "Geological effects and Intensity distribution of the Udayapur (Nepal) earthquake of August 20, 1988". Journal of Nepal Geological Society. 7. doi:10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32588. ISSN 2676-1378.
- ^ Bista, Dor Bahadur (February 1989). "Nepal in 1988: Many Losses, Some Gains". Asian Survey. 29 (2): 223–228. doi:10.1525/as.1989.29.2.01p0251s. ISSN 0004-4687.
- ^ Jain, Sudhir; Agrawal, Anil; Tripathi, Raghunath (1991-03-11). "Geotechnical Damage Due to Bihar Earthquake of August 1988". International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics.
- ^ "Nepal Earthquake Aug 1988 UNDRO Situation Reports 1 - 8 - Nepal | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 1988-08-22. Retrieved 2024-11-21.
- ^ "Earthquake Surface Rupture, Fissures, and Tectonic Uplift/Subsidence | UNDRR". www.undrr.org. 2023-06-07. Retrieved 2024-11-21.
- ^ Dahal, Ranjan Kumar (2022), "Earthquake-Induced Landslides in the Nepal Himalaya", Springer Natural Hazards, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 59–82, ISBN 978-981-19-6596-8, retrieved 2024-11-21
- ^ "How do earthquakes affect people?". British Geological Survey. Retrieved 2024-11-22.
- ^ a b Thakkar, S.; Paul, D.; Mukerjee, S.; Bandyopadhyay, S.; Kumar, Ashwani; Lavania, B. (1991-03-11). "Behavior of Buildings in August 21, 1988 Bihar-Nepal Earthquake". International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics.
- ^ Chamlagain, Deepak; Bhattarai, Ganesh Kumar; Rajaure, Sudhir (2011-09-24). "Seismic hazard assessment of eastern Nepal using 1934 and 1988 earthquakes". Journal of Nepal Geological Society. 42: 85–93. doi:10.3126/jngs.v42i0.31453. ISSN 2676-1378.
- ^ Bothara, J., Dizhur, D., Dhakal, R.P. and Ingham, J., (2018) From the 1988 Udaypur to the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal and beyond. In 2018 NZSEE Conference, New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering.
- ^ a b c Guy, P. J.; Ineson, N.; Bailie, R.; Grimwood, A. (1990-02-01). "Operation Nightingale: The Role of BMH Dharan Following the 1988 Nepal Earthquake, and Some Observations on Third World Earthquake Disaster Relief Missions". BMJ Military Health. 136 (1): 7–18. doi:10.1136/jramc-136-01-02. ISSN 2633-3767. PMID 2319510.
- ^ a b Dixit, Amod Mani; Yatabe, Ryuichi; Dahal, Ranjan Kumar; Bhandary, Netra Prakash (2014-10-02). "Public School Earthquake Safety Program in Nepal". Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk. 5 (4): 293–319. doi:10.1080/19475705.2013.806363. ISSN 1947-5705.
- ^ a b c d Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance. "Disaster Case Report: NEPAL- Earthquake FY 1988" (PDF). Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance.
- ^ a b c d e f "Nepal Earthquake Aug 1988 UNDRO Situation Reports 1 - 8 - Nepal | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 1988-08-22. Retrieved 2024-11-03.
- ^ a b c d Mavrouli, Maria; Mavroulis, Spyridon; Lekkas, Efthymios; Tsakris, Athanassios (2023-02-07). "The Impact of Earthquakes on Public Health: A Narrative Review of Infectious Diseases in the Post-Disaster Period Aiming to Disaster Risk Reduction". Microorganisms. 11 (2): 419. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11020419. ISSN 2076-2607. PMC 9968131. PMID 36838384.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Adhikari Baral, Ishwari; K.C, Bhagawati (December 2019). "Post traumatic stress disorder and coping strategies among adult survivors of earthquake, Nepal". BMC Psychiatry. 19 (1). doi:10.1186/s12888-019-2090-y. ISSN 1471-244X. PMC 6474064. PMID 30999893.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Paudel, Jayash; Ryu, Hanbyul (November 2018). "Natural disasters and human capital: The case of Nepal's earthquake". World Development. 111: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.06.019.
- ^ Gautam, Dipendra (1 August 2017). "On seismic vulnerability of highway bridges in Nepal: 1988 Udaypur earthquake (MW 6.8) revisited". Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering. 99: 168–171. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.05.014. ISSN 0267-7261. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
- ^ Bothara, Jitendra; Ingham, Jason; Dizhur, Dmytro (1 January 2018). "Chapter 11 - Earthquake Risk Reduction Efforts in Nepal". Integrating Disaster Science and Management. Elsevier: 177–203. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
- ^ Bothara, J. K.; Pandey, B.; Guragain, R. (31 March 2004). "Seismic retrofitting of low strength unreinforced masonry non-engineered school buildings". Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering. 37 (1): 13–22. doi:10.5459/bnzsee.37.1.13-22. ISSN 2324-1543. Retrieved 24 November 2024.