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User:Mcwillaa/Reproductive toxicity

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Lead

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Reproductive toxicity refers to the potential risk from a given chemical, physical or biologic agent to adversely affect both male and female fertility as well as offspring development.[1] Reproductive toxicants may adversely affect sexual function, ovarian failure, fertility as well as causing developmental toxicity in the offspring.[2][3] Lowered effective fertility related to reproductive toxicity relates to both male and female effects alike and is reflected in decreased sperm counts, semen quality and ovarian failure.

Infertility

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Infertility is medically defined as a failure of a couple to conceive over the course of one year of unprotected intercourse.[4] Primary infertility indicates that a person has never been able to achieve pregnancy while secondary inferility is defined as a person having at least one pregnancy before.[5]As many as 20% of couples experience infertility.[4] Infertility may be caused by an issue along any part of the process of fertilizing an egg through birth of the child. This can include: the release of the egg, the ability of the sperm to fertilize the egg, the implantation of the egg in the uterine wall, and the ability of the fetus to complete development without miscarriage.[6] Among males oligospermia is defined as a paucity of viable spermatozoa in the semen, whereas azoospermia refers to the complete absence of viable spermatozoa in the semen.[4] Males may also experience issues in sperm motility and morphology, which means the sperm are less likely to make it to the egg or to be able to fertilize the egg.[6] Female infertility could be a result of an issue regarding their uterus, ovaries, or fallopian tubes and can be impacted by various diseases, endocrine/hormone disruption, or reproductive toxicant.[6][7]

The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) separates reproductive toxicity from germ cell mutagenicity and carcinogenicity, even though both these hazards may also affect fertility.[8]

Examples of Reproductive Toxicants

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Heavy Metals

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Lead

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A piece of dark black metallic substance representing elemental lead.
Elemental lead

Lead, a heavy metal that can exist in both organic and inorganic forms, and is associated with adverse effects on male libido, erectile disfunction, premature ejaculation and poor sperm quality.[9] Lead is also associated with negative effects on the female reproductive system particularly for pregnant people.[10] Elevated blood lead levels can increase risk of preeclampsia and miscarriage and can lead to birth defects.[11][12] Lead is believed to predominantly affect male reproduction by the disruption of hormones, which reduces the quantity of sperm production in the seminiferous tubules. It has also been proposed that lead causes poor semen quality by increasing reactive oxygen species[clarification needed] due to lipid per-oxidation, leading to cellular damage.[13][14] Lead can be found in contaminated soil, water, as well as manufactured goods like jewelry, toys, and paint.[15] Common routes of exposure are inhalation and digestion, though dermal exposure can occur albeit less frequently.[15] Occupational exposures remain a high risk, particularly for industries such as battery/electronic recycling, construction, mining, smelting, and welders or any other industry which interacts with lead.[10] Families and co-habitants of the above workers may be at risk of take-home exposure and may need to take precautions to avoid reproductive impacts.[16]

Cadmium

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A picture of a piece of elemental cadmium it is a hard metallic lustrous metal.
Elemental cadmium.

Cadmium is a heavy metal used in jewelry making, electronics, welding and galvanizing steel.[17] The human route of exposure is primarily inhalational or oral; environmental exposure among the non-occupationally exposed can occur due to exposure to cigarette smoking.[17] The oral route of exposure can occur due to ingesting plants and shellfish that have taken up cadmium from water and soil.[17] Exposure to cadmium results in adverse male fertility in terms of decreased spermatogenesis, semen quality, sperm motility and impaired hormonal synthesis.[18] Likewise, exposure to cadmium impairs female fertility in terms of menstrual cycle regularity and reproductive hormonal balance.[18] Cadmium exposure can negatively impact fetal development throughout the gestation as well as ovulation and implantation.[19]

Chromium

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Hexavalent chromium ( Cr VI) is used in the electronics industry and for metal plating.[20] Chromium exposure is primarily inhalation or through ingestion.[21] Human and animal studies show that exposure to hexavalent chromium decreases semen quality and sperm counts.[22]

Mercury

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Elemental mercury( Hg0) is a metal that exists as liquid form at room temperature and is commonly found in thermometers, blood pressure cuffs and dental amalgams. In terms of exposure, the route of absorption is primarily via inhalation through mercury vapor which can in turn lead to mercury poisoning.[23] Occupational exposure to inorganic mercury can occur in industries such as dentistry, fluorescent lamp production, and Chloralkali workers.[24] Data among female dental technicians exposed to mercury vapors have demonstrated decreased fertility among those who were exposed and practiced poor industrial hygiene while handling dental amalgams.[23][25] Elemental and organic mercury can cross the blood brain barrier, like many other heavy metals, making it particularly significant for pregnant people as it can impact fetal development and birth outcomes. [26] Among female workers in mercury smelting plants an increase in spontaneous abortions has been reported.[25]

Dibromochloropropane

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Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) is used as a pesticide against nematodes in the agricultural industry.[27] DBCP is one of the most well-known reproductive toxicants known to cause testicular toxicity.[28] Workers in chemical factories exposed to dibromochloropropane have been shown to develop dose-dependent oligospermia and azoospermia.[28] Additional studies also demonstrated that DBCP-exposed workers in banana and pineapple plantations in central America and other countries also developed oligospermia and azoospermia.[29] In 1977, the United States Environmental Protection Agency banned the use of DBCP in agriculture due to its effect on male fertility.[30] Despite being banned from use in agriculture, DBCP is still used as an intermediate in chemical manufacturing as well as a reagent in research.[30]

Ethylene dibromide

Ethylene dibromide (EDB) is a fumigant that was originally used to protect citrus fruits, grains and vegetables from insects.[31] Use of EDB in the United States was banned by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1984, however EDB is still used in the United States as fumigant to treat timber logs for beetles and termites.[31] Likewise, it is still used as an intermediate in chemical manufacturing.[31] Exposure to EDB has been shown to adversely affect male fertility by leading to a decreased sperm counts, decreased numbers of viable sperm and increased abnormal sperm morphology.[32][33] The primary route of exposure is through inhalation.[31]

Industrial solvents

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Solvent exposure is common among men and women working in industrial settings. Specific solvents including xylene, perchloroethylene, toluene and methylene chloride have been shown to be associated with a concurrent elevation in risk for spontaneous abortion [34]

Ionizing radiation

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Ionizing radiation in the form alpha, beta and gamma emissions are well known to adversely affect male and female fertility, as well as fetal development.[35][36] Exposure to low doses ionizing radiation can occur naturally in the environment or due to medical treatment or diagnosis, however, higher exposures may be associated with occupation.[35] Occupations with documented risk include: healthcare workers who interact with radioactive material, certain manufacturing processes, and airline personnel.[35] Exposure in the range of 0.1 to1.2 Gy is associated with spermatogonial injury; whereas between 4-6 Gy reductions of sperm counts have been reported.[36] Ionizing radiation is considered a hazard particularly in pregnancy, due to its potential impact of gestational development.[35] More specifically, ionizing radiation is associated with an increased risk of miscarriage and stillbirth.[37] Recent studies suggest that routine medical examinations that expose a pregnant person to ionizing radiation are not associated with an increase of risk of miscarriage or stillbirth.[38]

Antineoplastic Drugs (Chemotherapy)

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Antineoplastic drugs, commonly known as chemotherapy drugs, are considered hazardous drugs by the CDC, including hazardous to reproductive health.[39] Exposure to chemotherapy drugs most often occurs through treatment for cancer, however, unintentional occupational exposure may occur in for workers involved in pharmaceutical production, pharmacists or technicians preparing the drugs, and nurses or other healthcare professionals who are administering medication to patients.[40] Other hospital staff, particularly custodial workers, who interact or handle antineoplastic drugs in any capacity may also be at risk of exposure. [40] Exposure can occur through inhalation, skin contact, ingestion, or injection.[40]

Anesthetic Gases

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Pesticides

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Solvents

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Non-Chemical Toxicants

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Work Schedule

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Work schedule can become a reproductive toxicant when working hours are during the employee's typical sleeping hours (night shift), when a worker has an irregular work schedule (shift work) or long working hours.[41] Work schedule's reproductive toxicity is primarily a result of impact on regularity, quality, and rhythm of sleep. [41] Shift work is associated with menstrual disorders, which can in turn impact fertility.[41][42] Irregular work schedule, working long hours, and working the night shift is associated with an increased risk of miscarriage and pre-term birth.[41] Many occupations engage in shift work, including requiring rotating work schedules, long hours, or night shift work. Some occupations that frequently engage in shift work include first responders, airline personnel, healthcare workers, and service workers.[41] The CDC estimates that fifteen-million Americans engage in shift work and 30% get less than six-hours of sleep.[41]

Physical Demands

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Physical demands can include bending, lifting, and standing. Physical demands are considered a reproductive toxicant as they can increase the risk of adverse outcomes during pregnancy.[43] Bending, lifting, and standing are often associated with occupational responsibilities as the risk is minimal unless physical activity is prolonged.[43] Standing and walking for more than three hours a day is associated with an increased risk of pre-term birth, while standing for six to eight hours a day is associated with an increased risk of miscarriage. [44][45] The weight and frequency of lifting is also associated with increased risk of miscarriage and preterm birth, with estimates of loads over 10kg, or frequency a cumulative 100kg/day.[45][46]

Noise

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Noise is considered a reproductive toxicant due to its potential impact on fetal development during pregnancy. While pregnant people may be able to use proper hearing protection to conserve their own hearing, after the 20th week of development babies' ears are susceptible to hearing loss.[47] Pregnant people who are past 20 weeks of development should consider avoiding noises above 85 decibels, including at work and recreational activities.[47]

References

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  1. ^ Occupational Health and Safety Administration. "Reproductive Hazards". osha.gov. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
  2. ^ "Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT and of the COUNCIL". Official Journal of the European Union. 16 December 2008. Annex I, section 3.7 labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures, amending and repealing Directives 67/548/EEC and 1999/45/EC, and amending Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006.
  3. ^ International Programme on Chemical Safety (2001). "Principles For Evaluating Health Risks To Reproduction Associated With Exposure To Chemicals". Environmental Health Criteria. 225. Geneva: World Health Organization.
  4. ^ a b c Long J (2022). Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment. McGraw Hill.
  5. ^ "Infertility". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  6. ^ a b c "Infertility | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  7. ^ "Infertility". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  8. ^ Nations, United (2015-06-19). Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS): Sixth Revised Edition. United Nations. doi:10.18356/591dabf9-en. ISBN 978-92-1-057320-7.
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  10. ^ a b "Lead & Other Heavy Metals - Reproductive Health | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2024-02-17.
  11. ^ Zhong, Zixing; Yang, Qingmei; Li, Chu; Chen, Xiaohong; Zhou, Feifei (2022-12-23). "A global perspective of correlation between maternal blood lead levels and risks of preeclampsia: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis". Frontiers in Public Health. 10. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1072052. ISSN 2296-2565.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ Kaur, Mandeep; Sharma, Priya; Kaur, Rajinder; Khetarpal, Preeti (2022-01-02). "Increased incidence of spontaneous abortions on exposure to cadmium and lead: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Gynecological Endocrinology. 38 (1): 16–21. doi:10.1080/09513590.2021.1942450. ISSN 0951-3590.
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  14. ^ Dorostghoal M, Seyyednejad SM, Jabari A (May 2014). "Protective effects of Fumaria parviflora L. on lead-induced testicular toxicity in male rats". Andrologia. 46 (4): 437–46. doi:10.1111/and.12100. PMID 23611729. S2CID 24028551.
  15. ^ a b "Lead (Pb) Toxicity: What Are Routes of Exposure to Lead? | Environmental Medicine | ATSDR". www.atsdr.cdc.gov. 2023-05-25. Retrieved 2024-02-17.
  16. ^ "Take-Home Exposures - Reproductive Health | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2024-02-17.
  17. ^ a b c Bernhoft RA (2013). "Cadmium toxicity and treatment". TheScientificWorldJournal. 2013: 394652. doi:10.1155/2013/394652. PMC 3686085. PMID 23844395.
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  19. ^ Thompson, J; Bannigan, J (2008-04). "Cadmium: Toxic effects on the reproductive system and the embryo". Reproductive Toxicology. 25 (3): 304–315. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.02.001. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ Pereira SC, Oliveira PF, Oliveira SR, Pereira ML, Alves MG (August 2021). "Impact of Environmental and Lifestyle Use of Chromium on Male Fertility: Focus on Antioxidant Activity and Oxidative Stress". Antioxidants. 10 (9): 1365. doi:10.3390/antiox10091365. PMC 8468676. PMID 34572997.
  21. ^ Costa M, Klein CB (February 2006). "Toxicity and carcinogenicity of chromium compounds in humans". Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 36 (2): 155–163. doi:10.1080/10408440500534032. PMID 16736941. S2CID 85928480.
  22. ^ Li H, Chen Q, Li S, Yao W, Li L, Shi X, et al. (October 2001). "Effect of Cr(VI) exposure on sperm quality: human and animal studies". The Annals of Occupational Hygiene. 45 (7): 505–511. doi:10.1016/S0003-4878(01)00004-7. PMID 11583652.
  23. ^ a b Davis BJ, Price HC, O'Connor RW, Fernando R, Rowland AS, Morgan DL (February 2001). "Mercury vapor and female reproductive toxicity". Toxicological Sciences. 59 (2): 291–296. doi:10.1093/toxsci/59.2.291. PMID 11158722.
  24. ^ Bjørklund, Geir; Chirumbolo, Salvatore; Dadar, Maryam; Pivina, Lyudmila; Lindh, Ulf; Butnariu, Monica; Aaseth, Jan (2019-10). "Mercury exposure and its effects on fertility and pregnancy outcome". Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 125 (4): 317–327. doi:10.1111/bcpt.13264. ISSN 1742-7835. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ a b Schuurs AH (May 1999). "Reproductive toxicity of occupational mercury. A review of the literature". Journal of Dentistry. 27 (4): 249–256. doi:10.1016/S0300-5712(97)00039-0. PMID 10193101.
  26. ^ Bjørklund, Geir; Chirumbolo, Salvatore; Dadar, Maryam; Pivina, Lyudmila; Lindh, Ulf; Butnariu, Monica; Aaseth, Jan (2019-10). "Mercury exposure and its effects on fertility and pregnancy outcome". Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 125 (4): 317–327. doi:10.1111/bcpt.13264. ISSN 1742-7835. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ Babich H, Davis DL, Stotzky G (March 1981). "Dibromochloropropane (DBCP): a review". The Science of the Total Environment. 17 (3): 207–221. Bibcode:1981ScTEn..17..207B. doi:10.1016/0048-9697(81)90062-0. PMID 7015501.
  28. ^ a b LaDou J (2014). Current Diagnosis and Treatment: Occupational Mediccine. United States: McGraw Hill Medical. pp. 455–459. ISBN 978-1-259-25145-0.
  29. ^ Marinaro J. "Environmental Toxins and Men's Health: Dibromochloropropane". Effects of Lifestyle on Men's Health – via Science Direct.
  30. ^ a b Naistat DM (2014). Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third ed.). Science Direct.
  31. ^ a b c d "Ethylene Dibromide (Dibromoethane) Hazard Summary" (PDF). EPA.gov. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
  32. ^ Schrader, Steven M. (2003). "Man and the workplace". Chemical Health & Safety. 10 (5): 11–16. doi:10.1016/s1074-9098(03)00089-3.
  33. ^ Ratcliffe, J. M.; Schrader, S. M.; Steenland, K.; Clapp, D. E.; Turner, T.; Hornung, R. W. (1 May 1987). "Semen quality in papaya workers with long term exposure to ethylene dibromide". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 44 (5): 317–326. doi:10.1136/oem.44.5.317. PMC 1007829. PMID 3297130. ProQuest 1771266376.
  34. ^ Janssen S (2021). CURRENT Diagnosis & Treatment: Occupational & Environmental Medicine (6th ed.). McGraw Hill.
  35. ^ a b c d "Radiation - Ionizing - Reproductive Health | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  36. ^ a b Kesari KK, Agarwal A, Henkel R (December 2018). "Radiations and male fertility". Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 16 (1): 118. doi:10.1186/s12958-018-0431-1. PMC 6240172. PMID 30445985.
  37. ^ Frangione, Brianna; Hinton, Patrick; Villeneuve, Paul J. (2023-01). "Low-dose ionizing radiation and adverse birth outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 96 (1): 77–92. doi:10.1007/s00420-022-01911-2. ISSN 0340-0131. PMC 9823032. PMID 35913560. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  38. ^ Lowe, Sandra A. (2020-08). "Ionizing radiation for maternal medical indications". Prenatal Diagnosis. 40 (9): 1150–1155. doi:10.1002/pd.5592. ISSN 1097-0223. PMID 31697844. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ^ NIOSH list of antineoplastic and other hazardous drugs in healthcare settings, 2016. (Supersedes 2014-138) (Report). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 2016-09-01. doi:10.26616/nioshpub2016161.
  40. ^ a b c "Antineoplastic Agents: Hazardous Drug Exposures in Healthcare | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  41. ^ a b c d e f "Work Schedule - Reproductive Health | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  42. ^ Hu, Fengying; Wu, Cuiyun; Jia, Yunfei; Zhen, Hualong; Cheng, Hengshun; Zhang, Fan; Wang, Liuqing; Jiang, Minmin (2023-12). "Shift work and menstruation: A meta-analysis study". SSM - Population Health. 24: 101542. doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101542. PMC 10632107. PMID 37954014. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  43. ^ a b "Physical Demands (lifting, standing, bending) - Reproductive Health | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  44. ^ van Beukering, M. D. M.; van Melick, M. J. G. J.; Mol, B. W.; Frings-Dresen, M. H. W.; Hulshof, C. T. J. (2014-11). "Physically demanding work and preterm delivery: a systematic review and meta-analysis". International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 87 (8): 809–834. doi:10.1007/s00420-013-0924-3. ISSN 0340-0131. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  45. ^ a b Bonde, Jens Peter; Jørgensen, Kristian Tore; Bonzini, Matteo; Palmer, Keith T (2013-07). "Miscarriage and occupational activity: a systematic review and meta-analysis regarding shift work, working hours, lifting, standing, and physical workload". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 39 (4): 325–334. doi:10.5271/sjweh.3337. ISSN 0355-3140. PMC 3699369. PMID 23235838. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  46. ^ Croteau, Agathe (2020-07). "Occupational lifting and adverse pregnancy outcome: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 77 (7): 496–505. doi:10.1136/oemed-2019-106334. ISSN 1351-0711. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  47. ^ a b "Noise - Reproductive Health | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
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