User:Liambeaton/sandbox

Article Evaluation

The article I did my evaluation on was Animal Training. The strength of the article comes from its organization of the different sections, and how it went through the topic. It started with the main methods and continued on to branch out into different aspects of training animals. I thought it would be interesting to add a section, and more information about the history of animal training. I'd also criticize the fact that out of the twenty eight citations in the reference page, eighteen of them come from 2 book sources. While they maybe very strong sources, it would be nice to have some variety in the supporting sources to verify the information from more than two sources.

Adding Citation

Added a line and a citation about the effectiveness of single versus multiple trainers in Animal Training

Article Selection

Option 1: Monogamy in Animals

Critique: Covers a wide range of areas in the topic, but none are very in-depth. Missing some citations (including the first line!).

Option 2: Hoarding (Animal Behavior)

Critique: Good amount of information, but missing a lot of citations, sometimes for an entire body of information.

Option 3: Nocturnality** Chosen topic

Good start, but still not completely in depth nor a whole lot of citations. Lots of room to improve and add information.

First Draft/Contribution and Citation Ideas/Final Draft

Resourced competition: Climate change may turn some diurnal species into nocturnal, creating more competition

https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecm.1334

example: (same source) ratsnakes (Elaphe obsoleta) are active when the temperature is best for them, regardless of light levels.. young cane toads (Bufo marinus) have been documented as changing from nocturnal to diurnal to avoid being eaten by adult con specifics

Evolutionary: ancestor of elephant (extinct) and kiwi bird likely evolved to lose eyesight and heighten other senses for nighttime

http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/285/1890/20181540

Predation:

Herbivorous mammals and nocturnal predators will be flexible in order to try and catch/get away from one another

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-20098-6

New Section? "Human Effects on Nocturnality"

Humans building increases amount of nocturnal activity in predator and prey species, however predators are less afraid of human areas, leaving nocturnal prey less room to get away from them.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718302532

Find information on how street light/light pollution affect animals?

Additions to '"Origins Section"

The Kiwi is a family of nocturnal birds endemic to New Zealand.

..."A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal characteristics isn't needed anymore due to the evolution of compensatory sensory systems, such as a heightened sense of smell and more astute auditory systems"... add citation for support:

Add: In a recent study, recently extinct elephant birds and modern day nocturnal kiwi bird skulls were examined to recreate their likely brain and skull formation. They indicated that olfactory bulbs were much larger in comparison to their optic lobes, indicating they both have a common ancestor who evolved to function as a nocturnal species, decreasing their eyesight in favor of a better sense of smell .

Additions to "Survival Adaptations"

Add to predation: Nocturnal species take advantage of the night time to prey on species that are used to avoiding diurnal predators. Some nocturnal fish species will use the moonlight to prey on zooplankton species that come to the surface at night.

Also add: Bats are famous for using echolocation to hunt down their prey, using sonar sounds to capture them in the dark.

Add to "Water Conservation": Climate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat.

Human Disturbances

The exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance.

Light Pollution

Light pollution on a ski slope in Finland gives the area a hazy, brightened sky

Light pollution is a major issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a "longer day", allowing for a longer hunting period, which in turn negatively their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them.

Orientation

Light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are not as used to the artificial lighting. Insects are the most obvious example, who are attracted by the lighting and are usually killed by either the heat or electrical current. Some species of frogs are blinded by the quick changes in light, while nocturnal migratory birds may be disoriented, causing them them to lose direction, tire out, or be captured by predators. Sea turtles are particularly affected by this, adding to a number of threats to the different endangered species. Adults are likely to stay away from artificially lit beaches that they might prefer to lay eggs on, as there is less cover against predators. Additionally, baby sea turtles that hatch from eggs on artificially lit beaches often get lost, heading towards the light sources as opposed to the ocean.

Rhythmic Behaviors

Rhythmic behaviors are affected by light pollution both seasonally and daily patterns. Migrating birds or mammals might have issues with the timing of their movement for example. On a day-to-day basis, species can see significant changes in their internal temperatures, their general movement, feeding, and body mass. These small scale changes can eventually lead to a population decline, as well as hurting local trophic levels and interconnecting species. Some typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance.

Reproduction

There have been documented effects of light pollution on reproductive cycles and factors in different species. It can affect mate choice, migration to breeding grounds, and nest site selection. In male green frogs, artificial light causes a decrease in mate calls, and continued to move around instead of waiting for a potential mate to arrive. This hurts the overall fitness of the species, which is concerning considering the overall decrease in amphibian populations.

Predation

Echolocating bats adjust their vocalizations to catch insects against a changing environmental background.

Some nocturnal predator-prey relationships are interrupted by artificial lighting. Bats that that are fast-moving are often at an advantage with insects being drawn to light; they are fast enough to escape any predators also attracted to the light, leaving slow-moving bats at a disadvantage. Another example is harbor seals eating juvenile salmon that moved down a river lit by nearby artificial lighting. Once the lights were turned off, predation levels decreased. Many diurnal prey species forced into being nocturnal are susceptible to nocturnal predators, and those species with poor nocturnal eyesight often bear the brunt of the cost.

Spatial Disturbance

The increasing amount of habitat destruction worldwide as a result of human expansion has given both advantages and disadvantages to different nocturnal animals. As a result of peak human activity in the daytime, more species are likely to be active at night in order to avoid the new disturbance in their habitat. Carnivorous predators however are less timid of the disturbance, feeding on human waste and keeping a relatively similar spatial habitat as the did before. In comparison, herbivorous prey tend to stay in areas where human disturbance is low, limiting both resources and their spatial habitat. This leads to an imbalance in favor of predators, who increase in population and come out more often at night.

Final Draft Notes

**Add opening paragraph to human disturbances, switch order of light pollution and Spatial disturbance

*Find photo to go with light pollution section, maybe video?