User:Learnerktm/Sandbox

user sandbox

This is the user sandbox of Learnerktm. A user sandbox is a subpage of the user's user page. It serves as a testing spot and page development space for the user and is not an encyclopedia article. Create or edit your own sandbox here.

Other sandboxes: Main sandbox | Template sandbox

Finished writing a draft article? Are you ready to request review of it by an experienced editor for possible inclusion in Wikipedia? Submit your draft for review!

If you are reading this page, then it is not an article, for sure. This is just my notes to study. You are welcomed. Just trying this because wikipedia is free and I can view this page million times.Don't delete this page finding it unnecessary. :)

1 Greengram Vigna radiate

• Vigna radiata

– Syn: Phaseolus aureus, Vigna aureus, Azukia radiata

• Commonly called as Mung bean

– Third important crop of pulses next to Chickpea &PP

– Versatile for grain, forage and green manure, as mixed, or sole crop or catch crop

– Enrichment of soil by fixing atmospheric N

– Highly nutritious (23-24% protein)

• Area & Production

– Widely cultivated among Asiatic species

– India, Pak, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, S. China & Formosa

– Also in Africa, USA & Australia•

Origin & distribution

– Indian sub-continent

– Maximum diversity among related species

– Several botanical varieties of mung bean

• They differ in habit, size of plant, period of maturity, color of pods & size, color seeds

• Climatic requirement – Short and long day plants available – Summer & Kharif in N India – Winter in peninsular India – Drought resistant but susceptible to frost, water logging and salinity – 30-35°C but up to 40°C – Rains during flowering detrimental – A hot humid with sufficient soil moisture is ideal

• The plant – Profusely branched with tendency to twine – Deep rooted but confined to 30cm – Leaves alternate, trifoliate & dark green – Plant height from 30- 120cm – Flowers are auxiliary or terminal racemes in clusters of 10-25 – Each pod contains 10-20 globose or oblong seeds – Seed weight varies from 15 to 40mg (15 to 40g/1000)

• Varieties – Many varieties – In TN • Paiyur 1 • ADT2, ADT 3 • CO4, CO5 • KM2, VBN 1, KI

• Season – Mostly Kharif & summer in north – Winter for south • Field preparation – Generally depends up on season – Deep ploughing once – Moderate tilth to surface – May be beds & channel – Border strip – Or for inter cropped community – ridges & furrows

• Spacing & seed rate – 30 x 10 cm – 333,000 optimum plants • An inter-plant spacing of 5-10cm seems better than 10-15 or 20 • Also row spacing of more than 30cm is not productive • Certain varieties give higher yield at 30x5 or 666,000 plants – Seed rate may vary from 15 – 20kg – Summer 25 kg • Seed treatment and sowing – Against biofertlizers must – Two seeds per hole – Rill sowing or sowing by seed drill – Broadcasting – uneven plant stand • Nutrient management – Removal- 40-42kg N; 3-5kg P; 12-14kg K /t of grain – N as starter dose – P more essential – Schedule • Rainfed : 12.5 :25 : 0 kg • Irrigated: 25 : 50: 0 kg – Under rainfed foliar application of DAP 2% twice once at flowering and 10 days later

• Water management – IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 is suitable – 2-3 irrigations at critical periods – flowering and pod setting • Weed management – Hand weeding or inter cultural implements twice – PE application of Fluchloralin 0.75 kg or Pendimethalin 0.75kg on 3rd day after sowing

• Cropping systems – It is intercropped with cereals or oil seeds – Pure crop • After main cropping season as residual crop • Rice fallow pulse • Rice –Rice – greengram – blackgram

• Harvest – At 80% pods turn brown – Or staggered pod picking – Entire plant may be cut dried and threshed and cleaned and stored at 8- 10%

Blackgram Vigna mungo

• Origin & distribution

– Indian sub-continent – Maximum diversity among related species – Several botanical varieties of mung bean • They differ in habit, size of plant, period of maturity, color of pods & size, color seeds

• Climatic requirement – Short and long day plants available – Summer & Kharif in N India – Winter in peninsular India – Drought resistant but susceptible to frost, water logging and salinity – 30-35°C but up to 40°C – Rains during flowering detrimental – A hot humid with sufficient soil moisture is ideal

• The plant – Profusely branched with tendency to twine – Deep rooted but confined to 30cm – Leaves alternate, trifoliate & dark green – Plant height from 30- 120cm – Flowers are auxiliary or terminal racemes in clusters of 10-25 – Each pod contains 10-20 globose or oblong seeds – Seed weight varies from 15 to 40mg (15 to 40g/1000)

• Varieties – Many varieties – In TN • Paiyur 1 • ADT2, ADT 3 • CO4, CO5 • KM2, VBN 1, KI

• Season – Mostly Kharif & summer in north – Winter for south • Field preparation – Generally depends up on season – Deep ploughing once – Moderate tilth to surface – May be beds & channel – Border strip – Or for inter cropped community – ridges & furrows

• Spacing & seed rate – 30 x 10 cm – 333,000 optimum plants • An inter-plant spacing of 5-10cm seems better than 10-15 or 20 • Also row spacing of more than 30cm is not productive • Certain varieties give higher yield at 30x5 or 666,000 plants – Seed rate may vary from 15 – 20kg – Summer 25 kg

• Seed treatment and sowing – Against biofertlizers must – Two seeds per hole – Rill sowing or sowing by seed drill – Broadcasting – uneven plant stand

• Nutrient management – Removal- 40-42kg N; 3-5kg P; 12-14kg K /t of grain – N as starter dose – P more essential – Schedule

• Rainfed : 12.5 :25 : 0 kg

• Irrigated: 25 : 50: 0 kg – Under rainfed foliar application of DAP 2% twice once at flowering and 10 days later • Water management – IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 is suitable – 2-3 irrigations at critical periods – flowering and pod setting • Weed management – Hand weeding or inter cultural implements twice – PE application of Fluchloralin 0.75 kg or Pendimethalin 0.75kg on 3rd day after sowing

• Cropping systems – It is intercropped with cereals or oil seeds – Pure crop • After main cropping season as residual crop • Rice fallow pulse • Rice –Rice – greengram – blackgram • Harvest – At 80% pods turn brown – Or staggered pod picking – Entire plant may be cut dried and threshed and cleaned and stored at 8- 10%Climatic requirement – Tropical crop – Tolerates high temp – Also cultivated in summer season – Short day plant to day neutral cultivars available – Optimum temp between 25 & 35°C – It can tolerate 42°C • Plant – Like greengram, short, erect – Flowers are borne in clusters of 5-6 on a short hairy peduncle in auxiliary racemes – Pods are short, brown black in color, hairy with stout hooked beak – 6-10 seeds – Weight 40-50mg (40g/1000grain)

• Varieties for TN – T9 - 65-70d – CO 4 - 70d – CO 5 - 70-75d – KM 2 - 60-65d – VBN 1 – 60-65 – ADT 3 – 70-75d – ADT 5 – 65 d • Soil, seed bed preparation – As that of greengram • Season – Warm weather with irrigation – Sowing during winter faces low temp

• Seed rate – 20 to 25 kg /ha • Seed treatment • Spacing & • Method of sowing • Manuring and • Weeding as that of greengram • Irrigation – As GG but – IW / CPE ratio of 0.6 to 0.9 in summer was found good

• Cropping systems – Intercropped with PP, Sorghum, maize, pearlmillet, oilseeds – Sequential cropping • Rice-rice-blackgram • Rice – wheat – blackgram • Blackgram – barley • Blackgram – wheat • Blackgram – rice - groundnut

Harvest – As Greengram – But staggered harvesting not a prerequisite since, not a shattering type – Second flesh is possible in this crop • Varieties should be short statured • For this add additional fertilizer at flowering and give two more irrigation • Growth is extended by 15 days • Grain yield enhanced – When pods turn black and hard entire plant may be uprooted and kept upside down for few days • After drying & volume reduced transport to threshing floor dry and thresh • Dry to 8-10% moisture and store

Redgram Cajanus cajan

Grain legumes - Importance of pulses

• India ranks first both in area and production

• Due to hardy nature they find place all over

• Their productivity is less due to – Unfavorable soil – Less important managements – Inherent genetic potential

• Economic volume may be less but energy required to produce is higher

• Biological produce is high but HI is poor

• 1 gram of protein ≠ 1gram of carbohydrate

• Pulses may be classified as

– Kharif pluses • Cultivated with warm temperature • May require higher water and irrigation • Redgram, blackgram, greengram, cowpea, horsegram, mothbean etc

– Rabi pulses • Requiring mild temperature • Relatively with residual soil moisture

• Chickpea, Lentil, Peas, – Soybean which is mostly a crop as the second category

Pigeon pea • Redgram, Congopea, no eye pea, arhar, tur Cajanus cajan – Most important pulse in area & production next to chickpea – Highly nutritious – protein 21% – It is grown all over the world –tropic & sub-tropics

• For grain, green manure, fodder and forage • As sole, inter & mixed crop • Area

– India ranks 1st – 90% area, 85% production – Other countries with PP

• Malawi, and Uganda + some eastern African countries • Nepal, Myanmar in Asia • Dominican Republic in USA • Area production & Productivity in India

Origin – A crop of India – Introduced to Africa • Varieties of India are classified into 2 groups but with some intermediaries – Cajanus cajan var. falvus (tur)

• Short duration • Annuals, yellow flowers, fewer plain pods • Cultivated in Southern India – Cajanus cajan var. bicolor (arhar) • Long duration, flowers yellow with purple streak • Std petals bears red veins on dorsal side • Pods are dark colored with 4-5 seeds • It is also found suitable for forage, as cover crop, shade and hedge crop

• Climate – Highly drought resistant – Moist & humid conditions for vegetative period – Drier condition for flowering and pod setting – Rains during flowering – poor pollination – infestation of pod borer – Temp of 18 – 27°C is desirable – However there are vars to tolerate <10°C & >35°C

• Soil – Well drained medium heavy loams – There are cultivars tolerant to • water logging • frost and • salinity

• The plant – Perennial but grown as annual – Stems are woody, branchy can go up >4m – Deep tap rooted – Leaves alternate pinnately tri-foliate – Pods compressed, 2-9 seeds, un-shattering – Seeds weigh 100mg (100g /1000 seeds) • Varieties – Grouped as short (100-150), medium (150-180) and long (180-300)days – N Hilly zone (hills of HP, J&K, UP) • T21 - SD, UPAS 120 – SD, ICPL 151-SD (Short Duration) – NW Plains (Delhi, Punjab, W.UP, N.Rajasthan & Haryana) • T21 - SD, UPAS 120 – SD, ICPL 151-SD – NE plains (C&E UP, Bihar, WB, Assam) • T21 - SD, UPAS 120 – SD, Bahar – LD (Long duration), SMR (Sterility mosaic resistant), AR (Alternaria resistant) – Central Zone (MP, Rajasthan, Maharastra & Gujarat) • T21 - SD, ICPL 151 –SD – Southern ( Orissa, AP, Karnataka & TN) • SA1 –LD, ICPL 87 – SD, KM7 –MD • For TN alone: COH 1 – SD, CO 6- MD, COH 2- SD, Vamaban 1 - LD

Management • Field preparation – Fine seed bed with friable soil with optimum moisture – for germination & growth – Deep rooted crop – one deep pluogh fallowed with harrowing – Raised bed (2.7m wide), Ridges & furrow, Flat sowing & making furrows at 2.7m

• Seeds and sowing – A seed requirement: • 8-10 kg for LD • 10-12 kg for MD • 12-15 kg for SD • Mixed crop 50% of the above – Optimum population is 111, 000 plants /ha • 45 x 20 or 15 for SD • 45 x 30 for MD • 90 x 30 for LD – Two seeds per hole – Shallow placing • Nutrient management – Good response to biofertlizers – Responds to N up to 25 kg as starter dose – Good response to P up to 60 kg – Applied K did not improved the yield since • The crop is deep rooted and • Most Indian soils are richer in K – There is response to sulphur up to 20kg – Response to Zinc on water logged saline soils – Blanket recommendation

• Rainfed: • 12.5 : 25 : 0 kg N:P:K /ha • Irrigated/well assured rainfall: • 25 : 50 : 0 kg N:P:K /ha – 20 kg sulphur as gypsum along with DAP 20kg as foliar may be given – Zinc application up to 20 kg for deficient soil • Water management – Deep rooted system helps to draw moisture from deeper – Branching, flowering and pod-filling are crucial – Irrigation at 0.4 IW/CPE ratio • Root penetration is better at 0.4 than 0.6 – Avoid water stagnation at any stage – 2 irrigations + life irrigation is sufficient

• Weed management – Being initial sluggish growth weed is problem – Crop weed competition is for 7-8 weeks – May be managed by quick growing short duration crops as intercropping – Mulching in between the rows can reduce weeds – Inter cultivation / hand weeding is must – PE application of Fluchloralin 0.75 kg or Pendimethalin 0.75kg on 3rd day after sowing

• Cropping system – It is basically an intercrop with short duration crops • With cereals : Sorghum + pp; FM + pp; Maize + pp • With pulses: pp + greengram / blackgram / soybean • With other crops: pp + groundnut / castor / sesame / cotton / sugarcane / sunflower – In sequential cropping • Pp –wheat / mustard – greengram • Pp – potato – blackgram / greengram

• Harvesting – Indeterminate growth no-synchronized maturity – When 70-80% pods turn brown cut & dried – Threshing may be passing stone roller / beating against hard surface – Seeds may be stored at 10-12% moisture – Splitting of cotyledons involves two steps • Loosening the husk from the cotyledons • And removing the husk and splitting them using rollers as dal

Causes for low production of pulses

Ecological factors: Pulses are grown mostly under rain fed conditions and only 8% of the area

is irrigated and it depends on residual soil moisture. Pulses are sensitive to excess soil moisture, salinity, alkalinity and acidity.

Lack of agronomic management: It is grown with poor management and lack of HYV

(HI-0.1–0.2 and but, for wheat, it is 0.5). Improper sowing time, inadequate seed rate and defective method of sowing are few examples.

Basic research factors: Break through in production is possible if HYV/hybrid is developed

with synchronous flowering, multiple resistance to pests and diseases and response to inputs. 574 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY

Socio-economic constraints: It is grown by resource poor farmers often as catch crop or mixed

crop or in rotation with commercial or high yielding cereal crop. Unassured market is a reason for low production.

Constraints in post harvest technology:

Soybean Glycine max

Origin

• Native of Eastern half of N China • Then spread to Japan and USSR • Only in 1908 to USA and also to India

o Early woks on soybean was reported from PUSA o Then spread to Pantnagar & Jabalpur by Edwin Bay in 63-64

Country M ha M t t / ha USA 28.7 75.0 2.6 Brazil 13.3 31.4 2.3 China 8.2 13.6 1.7 India 5.8 6.5 1.1 World 70.7 158.3 2.2

• Remained confined to small pockets since o Poor acceptability of black seeded varieties o Low yielding & disease susceptibility o Long duration o Shattering o No industry to buy o No link between producer & buyer o Benefits not aware o Lack of product development and marketing

Importance • Cheapest source of vegetable protein -40%+ • Oil rich 20% • Variety of uses today o Soy - beverage, curd, milk, ice cream, candy o Soy – nuts, cheese, flour etc o Oil – for glycerin, explosives, varnish, paint, soap, celluloid's etc  Fodder Classification • Depending upon form, size, shape, color of seed

o Color ( Manchurian )– Yellow, Black, Green o Shape ( Martin’s )  Elliptical – Egg type  Spherical – Round  Compressed – Pressed seed

o Based on maturity (USA) 10 classes The plant • Erect bushy annual 0.3 to 2.0 m • Both indeterminate & determinate types • PI within 3 weeks • Flowering 6-8 weeks after emergence • Pods visible 10 days after flowering • Flowering continues for 3-4 weeks • Many stages of pod and seed development • Mature pods contains 1-4 seeds/pod

The seed o Generally oval o 120-150mg o Cotyledons are yellow o Germination epigeal - cotyledon comes out of soil

Root & nodulation • Tap root but spreads laterally also • Bradyrhizobium japonicum – many nodules

The climate • Short day but cultivars differ • Late maturing - more sensitive to photo-period than early • Light intensity decides the floral initiation o 1076 lux units for 2 consecutive days for 8 hr • Temp o 5°C minimum, 30°C optimum, 40°C max The Field • Fine seed bed Time of sowing • Kharif season for India Spacing • 45 x 4-5 cm in Kharif • 30 x 2-3 cm in Rabi

Seed rate • Depends upon seed wt - 75-80kg Varieties • CO 1, CO 2, ADT 1 in TN Soils • Grows well in Alfisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols & vertisols Nutrients • 4 t crop removes o 370kg N, 40kg P, 130kg K, 90kg Ca, 40kg Mg, 28kg S o Application should based on variety & soil

Nutrients … • 20:80:40:40 N-P-K-S kg /ha • Zinc in high rainfall uplands & sodic soils 5kg ZnSO4 as basal Water • Requires 640-750mm • Sprouting, flowering, pod-initiation and grain filing are critical stages Weed management • As usual for chemical • Sensitive to early weed infestation • Yield may go down by 54-65% by weed alone • IWM is very much needed Cropping system • Scope or intercrop in cereals & pulses Harvest • Leaves drop at maturity • Entire plant cut at 15-17% seed moisture • A moisture content of 13-14% is ideal for threshing • Storage moisture 8-10%

RABI PULSES

Chickpea, Lentil, Fieldpea, French bean, Lathyrus

Rabi season pulse or Cool season food legumes are:

– Chickpea, Filedpea, Lentil, Lathyrus, Frenchbean, Fababean – They contribute 60% world pulse production

• 28 million ha globally • They are concentrated on temperate and sub-tropical climate • Chickpea, lentil & lathyrus in developing countries • Peas in developed countries • Fababean in both the areas but very minor crop

1. CHICKPEA / BENGALGRAM Cicer arietinum

– Cicer derived from ‘Cicero’ well known Roman family and ‘arietinum’ from ‘aries’ meaning ram’s head shape – Gram, Bengal gram, chana – Mostly used pulse in many products

• Boiled, roasted, steamed, sprouted, flour made into many delicious food

World Scenario Country Million ha Million t t/ha Africa (Ethiopia, Malawi, Morocco, Tanzania, Tunisia) 0.47 0.29 0.62 Mexico 0.11 0.15 1.44 Asia (India, Pak, Turkey, Iran, Myanmar) 11.0 8.04 0.73 India 7.10 5.75 0.81 Europe 0.18 0.12 0.67 Australia 0.22 0.27 1.25 Total 12.0 8.91 0.74

Origin – Most probably from SE Turkey to N Syria – Cultivation dates back to 6250 BC

• Plant – Indeterminate, stems are branched – Primary, secondary and tertiary branches are there – Height of the plant may vary from 20-100cm – Roots are robust & strong – Single flower from each node – They produce flowers profusely but only 20-30% set as pod – No. of pods may vary from 30-150 – No of seeds per pod 1-3

• Varieties – Two types Desi & Kabuli – Desi is small seeded • Angular shaped edge • Shape like chickens head • 90% of the world’s cultivated

– Kabuli, large and round seeded with white pale cream seed coat – Duration 90-180 days – CO 2, CO 3, CO 4 are 90days – All India – many varieties , Vijay, Pusa 391, DCP 91-3 (HYV, High input response, 150d, 170mg seeds size)

LENTIL Lens culinaris • Masur

– Consumed as dry seed – In India as flour, dal (boiled, smashed in to soup), several snacks and sweets

– Rich source of ca, phosphorous and iron – Protein 24-26% – Also rich in vitamins

• Global area production – 5% of pulses – 3.3 million ha & – 2.9 million t • Predominantly grown in Asia (80%) • Also grown in N & E Africa, N-C America, S. Europe

• Origin – Mediterranean region • The plant – Annual, herbaceous, short growing self pollinated legume – Stem highly branched, thin, slender – Basal part stem becomes woody as the plant grows. – Plant height varies from 15 – 75cm. – Duration 130-140days – Grain weight 18 to 33mg, mostly around 20-25mg

• Varieties – Broadly classified as microsperma and macrosperma • Microsperma are predominantly cultivated in India • Macrosperma are large sized grains cultivated in Mediterranean region – To mention some varieties in India • Pant L 406, 639, Pant L 4 • DPL 15 and DPL 62

Rabi pulses Management (Chickpea, Lentil, Fieldpea, French bean, Lathyrus)

Soil • All types of soil • Poor to fertile • Well drained soil is more suitable since sensitive to salinity and alkalinity

Field preparation • As for other pulses except rice-fallows • On heavy soils rough seed bed is suitable for chickpea • For others medium tillage is sufficient

Seed treatment : – For seed borne pests and diseases – Rhizobium for nodulation Season – NW Plains – end of October – NE Plains – Second fortnight of November • Soil moisture availability decides the time • Delay in sowing end with terminal drought

Seed rate – Depends up on the size of the seeds & spacing – Chickpea • 30 x 10 (33 m-2) plants is general • If irrigated 25 x 10 cm (44 m-2) • 80-85 kg for bold seeded (250mg) and 50-60 kg if 120-150mg – Lentil • 40-45 kg (micro) and 55-60 kg for macro sperma seeds – Field pea: 50-60 for small seeded and 80-90 for bold seeded – French bean : 120-140 kg (350-450mg) – Lathyrus: 80-100

Method of sowing – Broadcasting and planking – Drilling manually – Seed drill sowing – Broadcasting on standing rice crops (lentil & lathyrus) Depth of sowing – Since all cool season pulses are hypogeal can be planted deep depending on the moisture Rabi pulses - Nutrient Management Crop Ecosystem Planting time N P2O5 K2O S Chickpea Rainfed Normal 20 40 0 20 Irrigated Normal 20 60 20 20 Late 40 40 20 20 Lentil Rainfed Normal 20 40 0 20 Irrigated Normal 20 40 0 20 Late 30 40 0 20 Filedpea Rainfed Normal 20 40 0 20 Irrigated Normal 40 40 20 20 Late 40 40 20 20 Frenchbean Irrigated Normal 100 60 20 20 Lathyrus Rainfed Normal 10 30 0 0

Water management • All the crops are sown in residual soil moisture except Frenchbean • They may face terminal drought • One or two supplemental irrigation is needed • May be moisture conservation practices • IW/CPE ratio of 0.4 is reasonable for all • Lathyrus rice-fallow crop, little chance

Weed management • All methods to be employed • Herbicides can also be as per kharif pulses

Cropping systems • Cereal – legume is always good • Cereals in Kharif • They are also under mixed community with winter cereals like wheat and barley

Harvest • Over ripening leads to great loss of yield – It is very serious in French bean • Staggered harvesting is one way • Cut entire plant and carry with moisture & then dry and thrash, clean • Store the seeds at 8-10% moisture

oil seeds

Oil seeds and their importance

What is fat penalty? o Oil seeds are energy rich crop o 1g of photosynthate is converted as:  0.70 g of cereal  0.64g of pulses  0.42g of oil / fat

o Energy content MJ/kg  Oil - 39.8  Protein - 23.9  CHO - 16.8

Oil seed production & vegetable oil availability in India (Million) Year 9 oilseeds M ha Domestic Veg Oil (M t) Import Veg Oil (M t) Total 2004-05 24.8 7.50 5.25 12.75 2003-04 25.1 7.79 4.62 12.41 2002-03 15.1 5.15 5.39 10.54 2001-02 20.7 6.72 4.81 11.53 2000-01 18.4 5.85 5.09 10.94

Share of vegetable oil consumption in India o 70’s  Peanut – 53%  Rapeseed – 25%  Cotton seed oil – 9%  Palm, soybean, & sunflower – 4% o 1999-2000  Palm – 38%  Soybean – 21%

Historical oil seeds in India  Coconut, sesame, mustard, cotton seed, linseed, castor, Niger, safflower Newly introduced oil seeds  Groundnut, soybean, sunflower, oil palm

Byproducts of cultivated crops  Rice bran, tapioca seed, maize germ, tobacco seeds, rubber seeds, tung (Aleurites fordii), jute seeds, spent coffee grounds, tea seeds  Plus many more

Groundnut

Arachis hypogaea

Origin o South America o Brazil is considered as centre for many wild spp o Native of new world crop o Cultivated extensively in Meso-Amrica & South Amrica o Remnant pericarp tissue from Peru dates 3900-3750 years before

The word Arachis hypogaea (groundnut) has been derived from two Greek words, Arachis meaning a legume and hypogaea meaning below ground (referring to the formation of pods in the soil).

Groundnut has never been found in the wild state anywhere and its origin has, therefore, been a matter of considerable speculations and even controversy.

There are tow school of thoughts about its origin-one supporting the view that groundnut had originated in Africa and the other tracing its origin to Brazil in South America. According to some literatures it is clear that from the beginning of the sixteenth the west cost of Africa an naturally they introduced it from Brazil into Africa.

De Gandolle (1825) stated its origin to be in Brazil (South America). Its introduction in India is considered to be through Jesuit Fathers (Missionaries) who followed Vasco De Gama shortly after his first landing in India i.e. in the first half of the 16th century.

Distribution o Throughout the tropics and subtropical zones o India, China, Sudan, Nigeria, Senegal, Zaire, USA o In India  Gujarat  AP  TN  Karnataka  Maharastra

Spread in India o Commercial cultivation from early 19th century o Largest area in South Arcot in 1840 of Tamil Nadu o Possible way of entry from New World, South America via Philippines or China or Java o Ground nut oil production was from 1840 only o Today it is cultivated and consumed as largest crop

World - Area, production and productivity (million hectares and million tonnes) Country Area Production Productivity India 8.50 8.40 0.99 China 3.62 9.72 2.69 Nigeria 1.48 1.20 1.15 Sudan 1.09 0.81 0.74 Senegal 0.89 0.68 0.76 Ziare 0.66 0.55 0.83 USA 0.65 1.94 3.00 World 22.89 31.59 1.38

Oilseed scenario of the world o Until mid 80’s  Soybean > Cotton seed oil > groundnut o Today  Soybean > Cotton seed oil > rapeseed oil > peanut > sunflower Ground nut area, production and productivity in India (Million ha & Million t)

State Area Production Productivity Gujarat 1.99 2.38 1.20 AP 2.17 1.77 0.82 TN 1.15 1.84 1.60 Karnataka 1.21 0.95 0.79 Maharastra 0.60 0.63 1.04 All India 8.50 8.40 0.99 Classification  Bunch  Semi spreading and  Spreading  Also Virginia, Spanish and Valencia  All are compatible for crossing purpose

Climate  Adapted to wide range of climate  However plant gets affected when o Low light intensity during early growth & flowering o Cloudy weather at flowering  A temp range of 25-30°C o < 20°C and > 35°C growth gets retarded  Once established o It can tolerate drought o Also flood for a week if drained properly  A rainfall of 500-1000mm is fair but can produce a good crop with 300-400mm well distribution

Soil o Well drained soil is so ideal o Light colored loose, friable, sandy loam o Soil with well supplied calcium and moderate amount of organic matter o Sandy loam is more suited than clay o Since penetration of peg is easy and viable o A soil pH of 6.0 to 6.5 (ranges 5 to 7) o Saline soils are less suitable o since has low salt tolerance

Growth stages Vegetative VE – Emergence of cotyledons near the soil V0 – Cotyledons are flat and open V1 - First tetra foliate leaf one Reproductive R1 – Bloom one R2 – Peg one R3 – Pod one R4 - Full pod one R5 – Beginning seed one R6 – Full seed one R7 – Beginning maturity one R8 – Harvest maturity R9 – Over matured pod

Growing seasons In India grown in four seasons Kharif 85%

Rainfed Second fortnight of June Rabi where winter is very mild – usually in rice fallows Sep-Dec Summer II FN Dec- I Week Feb Spring I FN Feb – I Week Mar In Tamil Nadu Rainfed Apr-May - (Pollachi, Theni, Tenkasi) Jun-Jul - (NEZ) Jul-Aug – Most dts Oct – NEZ & Kanyakumari Irrigated Summer – All districts Dec-Jan – All dts Feb-Mar - New delta Varieties in Tamil Nadu o TMV 2 – cosmopolitan – bunch (360g) o TMV 7 – Bunch (360g) o TMV 10 –semi spreading (540g) o JL 24 – Bunch - rainfed / irrigated (460g) o VRI 2 – Spanish bunch (500g) o VRI 3 – Bunch (350g) o VRI 4 – Bunch (408g) o CO 1, 2, BSR 1 – Bunch

Seeds and seed treatments Dormancy o Varieties differ for seed dormancy o It is common in Virginia types o Dormancy may go if harvest delayed o Normally it may go off during storage Selection of kernel is important o Sound matured bold seeds o Discard shriveled, broken, disease affected o Hand decorticated is preferable Treat with bio-fertilizers – Rhizobial cultures o Before sowing Trichoderma viride @ 4g /kg

Seed management o Selected seeds are soaked for 6 hrs with 0.5% CaCl2 solution in 50% by volume o Spread the seeds in moist gunny bag and cover with moist gunny bag for 20- 24hrs o Seeds with viable expression of radicle is alone selected and shade dried to sowing moisture o Unviable seeds are discarded o Germination is ensured by 95%

Seed rate o 140 kg for rainfed o 125 kg for irrigated o Increase by 10% if bold seeded (like JL 24, CO 2 & TMV 10)

Spacing o 30 cm x 10 cm o 15 cm x 15 cm wherever ring mosaic is prevalent

Field preparation o Fine tilth to be obtained o Chiseling for soil with hard pan o Amendments for soil surface crusting o Lime 2t /ha along with FYM / compost o Farm beds and channels o 10 to 20 m-2

Sowing o Rainfed o Use seed drill or gorru o Can also be sown behind country plough o Pre-monsoon sowing is also a way o Irrigated o Dibbling at 4cm depth with adequate soil moisture o Can also be sown behind country plough o Irrigation may be after sowing if sown in dry soil

Nutrient management o Rainfed o 10 : 10: 45 kg N, P2O5, K2O / ha o Irrigated o 17 : 34 : 54 kg N, P2O5, K2O /ha o Sulphur sludge 60 kg /ha o Gypsum to groundnut o 400 kg for all non calcareous soils at 40-45 DAS o Apply by the side and irrigate Irrigation management o Irrigation at 25% depletion of ASM o IW/CPE ratio o 0.5 up to 40 DAS o 0.75 later o Total water requirement 400-600mm o Sowing or pre-sowing irrigation o 20 days after sowing o At flowering 2 irrigations o At pegging one or two o In pod development 2-3

Weed management o Stirring the soil to remove weeds also aerates o Aeration is more essential for peg formation o Fluchloralin 2 lit o pre-sowing incorporation or o Pre emergence application as spray o Metalachlor 1 kg o Pre-emergence and hand weeding o If no herbicide applied two hand weeding on 20 & 40 DAS Peg formation o No of pegs developed are higher in bunch o Daily min temp is positively correlated o But maximum temp negative o High light intensity affects pegging o Soil moisture if goes to wilting o Process of peg formation stops o Formed pegs may dry o Early formed flowers may inhibit the later to form peg o Auxin and GA produced by pro-embryo promotes growth o Length of peg is generic o Strength of peg is a concern for management Harvesting & Processing o Maturity o Yellowing of foliage o Spotting of leaves o Dropping of leaves o Hardening and toughness of pods o Dark tannin discoloration inside the pods o Unwrinkled kernels and coloration of testa

Harvesting & Processing o Delay in harvest causes 5-15% reduction o Bunch type usually matures in about 100-105 days o Spreading 130-150 days o Uprooting is the way in bunch o Blade harrows, tractor drawn diggers o In spreading types by digging

o Storage: o Plant with pods dried for two days o Pods separated and dried in open sun for 2-3 days o Proper drying of the pods may be judged by  Pods should give rattling sound when shaken  When the kernel is pressed between thumb and index finger it should split into 2 cotyledons  When the surface of the kernel if roughed hard a portion of the testa should come off. Cropping systems o Row Intercropping o Peanut + sorghum / ragi /redgram /chilli /cotton, sunflower /castor etc in different proportions o Mostly mixed crop with pulses o Groundnut – wheat o Rice - groundnut o Rice – rice - groundnut Economic uses o Edible oil (50% oil) o Haulms are palatable fodder to cattle o May be as hay or silage o Groundnut kernels have high protein o 1.3% times higher than meat o 2.5 times higher than egg o 8 times than fruits o Numerous industrial uses o Preparation veg oil (vanaspati) o Low quality oils for soap o For beauty aids, shaving cream, cols cream o For medical aids – plasters, ointments o Cake powder for laundry starch and manufacture of paper, gummed tapes and plastics o Activated carbon o Oil cake - Good organic manure and cattle feed o Cake flour is easily blends with wheat and others to bakers, confectioners, candy makers and ice cream manufactures

Sesame

Sesamum indicum Sesame Sesamum indicum

Importance

It is regarded as queen of oilseeds

 Because of its quality (fatty acid composition)
 Its resistance to oxidation and rancidity
o India is considered as basic centre of origin
o Very ancient crop
Economic Importance
o 38-54% high quality oil
 Containing 1-15% protein
o 75% sesame is used for oil
o 20% for domestic including sweets, candies and condiments
o 2-3% for next sowing
o It is nourishing food, as flavoring agent and for medicinal purpose
o Manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, perfumes, insecticides & pharmaceuticals
o Sesame cake is good livestock feed
o Also an ingredient to poultry feed

Distribution

o A crop of tropics and sub-tropics
o But it is grown up to 40°N in China
o India is the major producer

Sesame - World - Area, production and productivity (Million hectares and million tonnes)

Country Area Production Productivity
India 2.13 0.50 0.24
Sudan 1.05 0.25 0.25
China 1.00 0.56 0.62
Burma 0.87 0.21 0.25
Nigeria 0.25 0.08 0.30
World 6.57 2.27 0.35

Sesame – Indian scenario ( Million ha & million t)
State Area Production kg/ha
Gujarat 0.30 0.09 0.29
Rajasthan 0.21 0.02 0.07
Tamil Nadu 0.17 0.09 0.54
MP 0.17 0.04 0.21
UP 0.16 0.03 0.19
Maharastra 0.13 0.04 0.30
WB 0.01 0.09 0.85
India 2.13 0.50 0.24

The plant

o It is erect, branched annual
o Multi flowered, fruit is capsule with small oleaginous seeds
o Leaves are most variable in shape and size
o Lower leaves tend to be broad
o Upper leaves are more narrow and lanceolate
o Flowers arise in the axils of leaves & on the upper portion of the stem
Seed
o Small, ovate 3g/1000
o Testa color varies black, white, yellow, dark grey
o Dry matter content in the seed increases rapidly between 12-24 days in
parallel with oil content
o A capsule may contain 50-100 seeds

Climate
o Requires fairly high temp
o 2700 heat units are normally required
o 27-33°C is found to be optimum
o < 10°C growth process stops
o > 40°C can affect fertilization
o A rainfall of 500-650mm
o Heavy rain at flowering affects yield
o Extremely susceptible to water logging
o It is drought resistant, can withstand drought
 Except establishment period
 A crop for SAT regions
o Susceptible to wind damage & hail
o Heavy storms can virtually strip off leaves

Soils

o From sandy to clay soils
o Thrives well under well drained moderately fertile soils of medium texture
o Soils with impervious sub-soil are not suitable
o Soils with neutral pH
o Sesame grows with a range of 5.5 to 8.0 soil pH
o Many soils where sesame cultivated are saline

Land preparation

o Fine tilth by deep ploughing
o Land should be leveled properly
o Beds and channels is more suitable
o In heavy rainfall areas broad bed furrows
o Ridges may be to drain the excess rainfall

Improved varieties

o CO 1
o TMV 3, TMV 4, TMV 5, TMV 6
o Paiyur 1
o SVPR 1 (white)
o VRI 1

Duration o 80-85 days

Oil content o 44-56% mostly 50%

Season

o In Tamil Nadu*  Jun15-Jly 7

 Nov 30 Dec 15
 Feb 15 - March 30

o In North  Kharif - according to monsoon set

o Bihar, WB & Orissa:  Irrigated - March

Seed rate & spacing o Seed rate - 5 kg /ha o Spacing

 30cm x 30cm (11 plants m-2)
 Broadcasting and thinning to - 11

o Spacing adapted in other states  30x15 (AP, Assam, Karnataka, Orissa, WB)  45 x 10 in Kharif and 45x15 in Rabi in Gujarat

Seed treatment & sowing

o Treat the seeds with Trichderma @ 4g/kg
o 3 pockets of Azospirillum /ha
o Mix the seeds with four times its volume of dry sand and mix
o Drop / broadcast uniformly
o Depth of sowing 3cm

Transplanting of gingelly o Transplanting is possible  In light textured soil  Nursery

• Raised bed, 300 m-2

• Seed rate : 1.0 to 2.0g seeds m-2  Seedlings of 15-20days old  Irrigate and transplant  Transplant at late afternoon o Optimum population with equidistance gives yield advantage

Manures & Fertilizers o FYM/composted coir pith 12.5t/ha o Blanket - N:P2O5 :K2O kg /ha

 Tamil Nadu • Rainfed - 23:13:13 • Irrigated – 35:23:23 • If Azospirillum applied, N may be reduced by 5-10 kg

 Other states with higher recommendation • Gujarat – Irrigated: 50:25:25 • WB – Irrigated: 50:25:25

o Apply all basal o 5kg MnSO4 in Mn deficient soils o 5kg ZnSO4 for Zn deficient soils  Micronutrients should be broadcast with sand after sowing

Water management

o Irrigate at sowing
o Life irrigation 7 days later
o Light irrigation at short interval is better than heavy
o Heavy irrigations reduce seed weight and oil content
 Irrigation at flowering critical
 Soil moisture should be low at maturity
o Irrigation at 25% ASM
o IW/CPE ration of 0.4
o Total water requirement- 250-350mm

Weed management

o Thinning, hoeing and weeding are important cultural practices
o Hoeing & weeding twice at 15 & 30 DAS
o Herbicides
 Pre-emergence application of Alachlor @ 1.25 kg/ha
 Or Fluchloralin 1kg/ha
 Herbicide application to be followed with hand weeding on 30th day

Maturity

o 25% of bottom leaves dropped
o Top leaves loose their green color – turn to pale yellow
o The colour of the stem turns yellow
o Capsules up to middle of the stem turn yellow
o Examine the 10th capsule for seed color
 If the color is black then ready for harvest

Harvest

o May be cut to ground or uproot
 Preferably in the morning
o Stack in the open one over other in circular heap
o Keep the top inside and roots out
o Cover top of the heap with straw and tie or add weight

 Humidity and temp increases

o Heap for 3-5 days
o Open the heap and keep the stacks drying
• Dry it for 2 or 3 days
• Shake the plants after drying to separate the seeds
• Dry the plant again and separate the seeds

- Yield
o Vary very widely
o Few 100 to 3000kg
o Rainfed in India
o 375-500 kg
o Irrigated (rabi)
o 500-575kg
o Transplanted gingelly may give higher yield of 2.0 tonnes

Cropping system

o As pure crop
o Rice-gingelly
o Sesame-wheat
o Sesame-chickpea/ rapeseed/lentil/pearlmillet
o Mixed / inter crop
o Yield is poor but area is more
o Sesame +mungbean
o Sesame +groundnut
o Sesame +maize

Storage

o Clean and dry
o 5% moisture for storage
o Containers should be tight tipped

Sunflower

Helianthus annuus

It was an ornamental before 1969 in India
It is popular oil seed crop today
Its name is with reasoning
Annual but there are perennials
Competing with 4 major oil seeds of the world after mid 19th century
Soybean, rapeseed, cotton seed, peanut
Soybean and cotton seed has other values as protein meal and fibre

Specialty of sunflower oil

Among the vegetable oils most suitable to coronary system
High level of linoleic acid and absence of linolenic acid
PUFA (Polyunsaturated fatty acid) – Linoleic content is more (67%) and about 90%
unsaturated (+monounsaturated 21%)
Major ingredient in margarine and shortening products

Origin & spread

Probably from South - West America
Sunflower was introduced into Europe in 16th century
Reached Europe from Mexico via Spain
It was ornamental
Reached Russia via Holland in 18th century
First commercial production for oil -1830-40
After second world war introduction of Russian varieties such as Peredoviv,
Mennonite & Sunrise led to the development of this crop in Europe & America
In India it was only ornamental till 1969
Introduction of Peredoviv, Armveski varieties from Russia in 1969 led for the
spread

Sunflower world scenario in 1999 (Million ha & million t)

Country Area Production Productivity
Russia 3.98 4.20 1.05
Argentina 3.79 6.50 1.72
Ukraine 2.78 2.75 0.99
India 2.25 1.25 0.56
USA 1.39 1.99 1.41
Romania 1.04 1.21 1.17
Spain 0.87 0.56 0.64
China 0.86 1.55 1.80
South Africa 0.82 1.21 1.46
France 0.80 1.87 2.34
Turkey 0.55 0.86 1.58
World 22.84 1.25 28.48

Indian Scenario of sunflower in 1999 (million ha & million t)

State Area Production Productivity
Karnataka 0.88 0.36 0.41
Maharastra 0.52 0.32 0.62
AP 0.29 0.22 0.75
Punjab 0.10 0.16 1.54
Haryana 0.06 0.11 1.76
UP 0.03 0.04 1.46
TN 0.02 0.02 1.17
India 2.25 1.25 0.56

Favourable features for growth of sunflower in India

Wide adaptability
Photoperiod insensitiveness
Shorter duration (60-100 days)
High quality edible oil (PUFA)
High seed multiplication ratio (>1: 80)
Easier & cheaper cultivation
Remunerative market price
Suitable for mechanization

The plant

o Erect, tall usually un-branched
o Plant height, head size, days to flowering & maturity are all vary due to
environment
o Root – tap root - but thick root mat with short tap root is common
o May be problem in light soil to heavy mass - lodging
o Limitations in the exploitation of soil moisture & nutrients
o Earthing-up interferes with roots
o Irrigation frequency should be short to meet the demand
o Waterlogging adversely affects the crop due to weakening of
anchorage and proliferation of fungal diseases

o The stem

o Mostly unbranched
o Branching is not desirable
 Basal branching may be useful
 Leaf axil branching problem
 N triggers branching
o Green stem contributes for photosynthesis

o Ht varies

 80-120 short can accomododate more plants
 120-150 medium
 150-180 tall

o The leaf

o Varies with plant type and environment
o Limited to number of nodes
o 8 to as many as 70
o Arranged alternate at right angle
o The inflorescence
o Capitulum borne terminally
o Surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts called involucre
(modified leaves)
o Head diameter is yield deciding factor
o Anthesis and fertilization
o Flowering from periphery
o Outermost opens first
o Daily 1-5 rows continues up to 5-10 days

o The seed

o Seed is called ‘achene’
o Seed size 7-25mm long, 4-13m long,3 -7.5mm thick
o Dormancy normally 10-45 days
o Oil content 36-37%
o 1000 seed weight 43-45g

The climate Temp range 8-34°C

Optimum 20 & 25°C

Requires cooler (15-20°C) growing period and warmer maturing period (20-25°C) Base minimum is 10°C

High temp (>38°C) in post-anthesis inhibit quantity and quality of oil

Rainfall of 500mm, with 300 mm it can yield

Avoid flowering coincide continuous drizzle

Soil

o Can be in wide range of soils
o Any soil with good drainage is more important
o Neutral to moderately alkaline soils
o pH ranges 6.5 to 8.0
o Complete failure in sandy soil with pH 4.6

Varieties CO1, CO2, CO 3, CO 4 Modern, K2, K1, BSH 1 EC 68415 Hybrids have advantage than varieties

o High yield potential
o Uniform crop stand
o More self-fertile, less problem of seed set

 MSFH 1, BSH 1

Seasons

Rainfed June-July, Kharif in North Oct-Nov Irrigated

o Dec - Jan
o April – May

Field preparation

o Fine tilth
o Apply FYM / Compost incorporate
o Ridges and furrows

Spacing

o 30 to 60cm according to variety
o 10 to 15 cm for short & medium stature
o 15 to 30 cm for tall (>120cm)

Seed rate

o @ 2 seeds per hole
o Seed weight of 45g/1000
o 30 x 10 30 kg
o 30 x 15 20kg
o 30 x 30 10kg
o 60 x 30 5kg

Seed treatment

o Trichderma 4 g /kg
o Azospirillum 600 g to one ha
o Soaking the seeds
o 2% ZnSO4 for 12hrs and
o Shade drying for rainfed sowing is desirable

Sowing

o Well prepared deep, friable seedbed is more preferable
o Depth of sowing 3-5cm

Plant population* o 55,000 to 98,000 /ha almost same yield

o If the head diameter is <10cm more population
o If>20 cm less population

Thinning o Highly sensitive to intra-specific competition

Nutrient management

o Fast growing high oil yielding thus requires more nutrients
o Low yield in India is attributed to poor fertile soil, cultivated in rainfed
conditions
o A crop yielding 2 t seed, 3.2t stover and 0..8t root uptakes

82 kg N, 13 kg P, 60 kg K, 9.4 kg S, 37 kg Ca and 21 kg Mg.

State wise nutrient recommendation o TN 40-20-20 o UP 80-60-40 o AP - Rainfed 60-30-0 - Irrigated Hybrids 60-90-30 ; Variety 30-60-30

Weed management o Fluchloralin / Pendimethalin  2.0kg as pre-mergence  High volume spray

o Hoeing and weeding on 15th day & 30th day o Within three days irrigate the filed

Water management

o Immediately after sowing
o 4-5 days later once
o Interval of 7-8 days
o Seeding, flowering and seed development stages are critical
Seed setting and filling
o Problem is seen with poor seed setting
o This problem is more in warmer regions
o In India seed filling under good management is only 75%
o It will be as low as 10-20%

o Reasons  Genetic  Environmental  Physiological  Availability of pollinators

Maturity* Physiological maturity (30-40% seed moisture

When the back of the head turns green to lemon yellow
There will be 5-6 green leaves at this stage
Harvest maturity (10-12%)
Delay beyond harvest maturity severe yield loss
Cropping systems
Sequential cropping

 Southern India

• Rainfed - Sunflower – millets/pulses
• Irrigated- Rice – sunflower

 North Rainfed - SF – wheat / chickpea

o Row intercrop
 Groundnut + SF
 Pigeanpea + SF
 Castor + SF
 Pulses + SF

Rapeseed-Mustard

Rapeseed-Mustard Brassicas sp. Brassicas are grown next to peanut in India. Rapeseed-mustard is a common name to three Genera :

– Brassica
– Eruca
– Sinapsis

o Brassica is more important Importance of Brassicas in India

o It is main Rabi season crop in India
o Green tender plant is used as vegetable
o Whole seed is for preparing pickles and flavoring vegetables and curries
o Oil for cooking, frying and pickles
o Oil is also used for vegetable ghee, hair oil, soap, lubricating oil, and tanning industries
o Seed & oil have peculiar pungency
o Due to presence of glucose sinigrin
o Oil cake is a cattle feed to be fed at smaller quantity Canola
o It is a trade name to rapeseed oils which possess
o <2% erusic acid
o Solid components should contain
 <30 micromoles /g of glucosinolates
o May be Canadian oil like “Mazola” (maize oil – Corn oil), “Sanola” sunflower oil
( again brand name for PUFA content)
o Of late refers to ‘generic’ but
o Those rapeseed varieties metingabove the specification

(Erusic acid causes heart lesions and Glucosinolates cause thyroid enlargement)

Brassicas grown in India Taxonomic name Common name Hindi Oil Content

B. Campestris Turnip rape Brown sarson Kali sarson
Var. brown sarson Brown sarson Kali sarson 43%
Var. yellow sarson Yellow sarson Peeli sarson 45%
Var. toria Indian rape Toria 35%
B. napus Swede, summer,

winter rape Gobhi sarson Oilseed

B. Juncea Indian mustard

Mustard Rai, Raya Laha

35%
B. toumefortii Wild mustard Jungli rai 18%
B. carinata Ethiopian mustard Karan rai Oilseed
B. nigra Black mustrad Banarsi rai 29% Condiment
B.Oleratea Vegetables

Eruca sativa Rocket Taramira 28% Rapeseed vs. Mustard Character Rapeseed (Sarson/Toria/Lahi) Mustard (Rai, Raya, Laha) Plant height (cm) 45 – 150 90-200 Leaves Sessile, leaf lamina claps the stalk Leaves stalked but do not clasp Siliquae (pod) Short or thicker Long & slender Pollination Cross pollinated Self pollinated Seed coat Smooth Rough Brown sarson vs. Yellow sarson Character Brown sarson Yellow sarson Leaves Pale, thin Dark green and fleshy Branching Erect, spreading Erect Siliquae (pod) Thin, narrow Thick and broad Seed coat Dark brown to reddish brown & mucilaginous Yellow & non mucilaginous Origin o Rai – China o Toria – East Afghanistan o Brown sarson – E. Afghanistan & adjoining Indian sub-continent o Yellow sarson – N.E. India Rapeseed-Mustard : Area cultivated in the world (1997) – (Million ha & million t) Country Area Production Productivity India 6.81 6.96 1.02 China 6.79 9.54 1.41 Canada 4.84 6.19 1.29 France 0.99 3.49 3.53 Germany 0.92 2.84 3.10 World 24.2 35.15 1.45 Rapeseed-Mustard : Area in India (1997) (Million ha & million t) State Area Production Productivity Rajasthan 2.96 2.65 0.99 UP 1.43 1.47 1.03 Gujarat 0.34 0.47 1.37 Haryana 0.61 0.89 1.46 MP 0.82 0.75 0.91 WB 0.32 0.28 0.89 Assam 0.28 0.14 0.51 Punjab 0.09 0.11 1.27 India 6.81 6.96 1.02 Brassicas Area in India o Till independence area remained constant (2.0million ha) o From 50’s area rose steadily o Due to increase in irrigated area o Increased productivity, varieties and agronomic practices o Maximum area was in 6.87 million ha -96-97 o Major states growing are o Rajasthan, UP, Gujarat, Haryana, MP, WB, Assam & Punjab Climate

o A crop of temperate
o Can be in higher elevation of tropics
o Rabi season crop in India,
o Sep-Oct to Mar-Apr
o Temperature range 3 to 40°C
o Optimum 18-25°C with cool, dry clear weather
o High RF, high humidity, cloudy atmosphere at flowering undesirable
o Most susceptible to frost

Season

o Sowing starts from August ends in November
o Sowing of rapeseed is ahead of mustard
o Taramira is sown from mid-Sep to Oct end
o Region wise season varies

Varieties

o Mustrad
o Varuna (T 59), TM 2, TM 4, Seetha
o Brown sarson
o KNS 3, KOS 1
o Yellow sarson
o PUSA GOLD, YS 93
o Toria
o Jawahar Toria, Panchali, TS 29
o Taramira
o RTM 13, TMC 1

Soil

o Varying soil from sandy loam to clay
o Thrives well in light soil
o Mustard on any soil but rapeseed in light
o Well drained soil is more suitable
o Waterlogging should not be
o Saline alkaline soils are unsuitable
o pH 6.5 to 7.5, neutral soil is ideal

Land preparation

o Fine seed bed since seeds are small
o Flat bed to perform ferti cum seed drill

Seed rate & spacing

o 4-6 kg depending upon seed weight
o 3-5 g/1000 depending upon crop and variety
o 30 x 10 to 30 x 15cm
o 22.2 to 33.3 plants m-2

Sowing

o Treat the seeds with fungicides well before sowing
o May be behind the country plough
o Ferti cum seed drill
o Depth of sowing 3-4cm
o Avoid shallow sowing
o Cover the seeds after sowing
o Sowing may be on conserved soil moisture

Manuring

o Oil seed crops removes huge nutrients
o S is removed in large and needs return
o General recommendation varies to States
o 60-40-40 for irrigated
o Half N 30 DAS
o If SSP is applied S is taken care, if not
o 20-40kg elemental sulphur, if soil analyzed with <10ppm
o 30-20-20 for rainfed (half of irrigated)
o All basal
o Nutrient requirement may be calculated by critical concentration
o 6.07 – 6.62% N in top 2-3rd leaf at 60 DAS
o 0.408 – 0.412% S in 4-5th leaf from top
o Integration with biofertlizer ‘Azotobactor’ is desirable

Irrigation

o Total water requirement - 400mm
o Moisture at pre-flowering and pod filling stage is critical
o Two irrigations for mustard
 One at rosette stage (20-30DAS)
 Another at siliqua atage (50-60DAS)
o In light soils three irrigations, the third at 90DAS
o IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 is optimum

Weed management

o Dominant weeds
o Chenpodium album
o C. murale
o Convolvulus arvensis
o Melitotus alba
o Intercultural operation 5-10days after 1st irrigation
o Hand hoeing is desirable, it aerates the soil
o Soil aeration is to conserve soil moisture
o Herbicides can also be used
o Pendimethalin pre-emergence 0.5-1.5 kg/ha based on soil
o Fluchloralin 1.25kg pre-plant incorporation
o Post emergence Isoproturan 0.75 kg /ha for

 Wheat+mustard mixed systems Harvesting maturity

o Color of leaves, stem and silique turn green to pale yellow
o Lower silique looks – dried appearance
o Upper may be green
o Seeds in the silique makes rattling sound
o Silique with 2 carpels and a false septum
o During over maturity the two carpels split and seeds shed
o Premature harvest leads to shriveled grains

Threshing

o After sun drying for few hours
o Beating pods along with the plants

 Either manually  Machine  Walking bullocks, or running tractor o Cleaning and drying to 8-10% moisture for storage

o Average yield

 Irrigated rapeseed 1.5 to 2.0 t
 Rainfed rapeseed 1.0 to 1.5t
 Irrigated mustard 2.0 to 2.5 t
 Rainfed mustard 1.5 to 2.0t

Cropping systems

o Fallow / millets / pulses – mustard
o Rice – rapeseed
o Intercroppings
 Mustard + chickpea
 Mustard + sugarcane
 Mustard + barley / wheat / chickpea
 Potato + mustard