User:Kanessa192/sandbox

Week 2: Evaluation & Discussion

Article Evaluation: Shark

In the article Shark, some of the research papers referenced are 10-20 years old. Is there any more recent research on shark biology and different types of tissue? In other words, has any new information been discovered since then? In our group discussion, Allie also suggested adding some information about the life cycle of sharks.

Since this article was intended as an overview of sharks in general, I’d say that all information included was relevant. However, there was a bit of a content gap when the article discussed cancer in sharks (here). It mentions that sharks are vulnerable to cancer as well as other diseases. It also says that sharks are vulnerable to parasites; however, nowhere in the article are parasites actually discussed. Would it be possible to add a new subsection giving examples of common diseases and parasites that affect sharks?

Also, the organization of the photos/captions at the top of the article was distracting - it seems like it would be more logical to order the captions for the photos from left to right and top to bottom, since they're organized in rows. As is, it's distracting to have to try to figure out which name goes with which shark species.

The citations that I checked seemed to be in order, with no apparent plagiarism. A wide variety of sources was used. I looked for bias especially in the section about the relationship between sharks and humans, but the wording was neutral and there was a good explanation of how sharks are negatively portrayed in pop culture. In class, we’ve talked more about sharks in their evolutionary context, and the taxonomy of sharks was included in the article.

In terms of ongoing conversations, the suggestion has been made to include a habitat map for sharks. The article is involved in several WikiProjects on marine life and fishing, as well as one about evolution. It is rated as GA-Class (a natural sciences good article) and is a level 4 vital article in biology, which is considered high quality.

Kanessa192 (talk) 17:32, 26 February 2021 (UTC)

Week 3:

Discussion notes (with Allie & Olunia)

Blog posts are unreliable because they are very biased - they're essentially a place to express opinion, not fact, and their content is often produced by an individual who is not being held accountable to anyone other than themselves. Press releases are also biased because they present a version of events that is intended to be interpreted in a specific way. This is similar to the company website issue - they're only going to want to make public the information that makes them look good because it's in their own best interest.

Copyright violations occur when material is used without permission (also applies to images, music, etc.). Plagiarism is more about the use of another person's ideas (paraphrasing without citing) and can occur even if you don't copy material word-for-word. The best way to avoid copyright violations is to make sure that the material you want to use is available under the correct license and that you are following the guidelines for crediting the source according to the license you use. Plagiarism can be avoided by using proper citations and referring to a variety of sources so that you fully understand the material yourself and can express the facts in your own words.

Adding to article:

As I noted earlier, the article Shark lacks information on common parasites that affect sharks. I decided to draft a couple sentences to remedy this and to propose the change on the article's Talk page.

Proposed edit:  Parasite species can vary depending on the habitat and species of shark being examined.  Examples of common parasites that affect sharks are copepods, which are typically found on the gills and skin; and cestodes, which are found internally.   

References:

Kanessa192 (talk) 06:04, 6 March 2021 (UTC)

Feedback: Discussion and Adding to an Article

• Excellent observation about some of the more subtle aspects of plagiarism!
• Your suggested edit and talk post are perfect. You drafted a contribution that is backed with two great references and you posted to the talk page!
• The page seems pretty quiet right now, but in an ideal situation, you will get feedback from other Wikipedians working on this page. They can help direct your potential edits and point you in useful directions in case this is not the right spot for that edit.

Well done!Osquaesitor (talk) 19:50, 13 March 2021 (UTC)

Week 4:

Choice 1: Shark (plus related topics)

Sharks diverged from the phylogeny fairly early, and since this page is an overview, I think there’s an opportunity to discuss shared and differing evolutionary characteristics among species. I could also go more in-depth on the diseases and parasites that affect sharks.

Frilled shark: I’ve been interested in the unique dentition of frilled sharks for a long time.

Elasmobranchii: This might be more appropriate for focusing on evolution and divergence, but including other cartilaginous fish.

Horn shark: I’m curious about their reproductive strategies and how they use suction to capture prey.

Choice 2: Hagfish (plus related topics)

After hearing the podcast a few weeks ago, I’m interested in the mechanisms of mucus production in hagfish. I could include this podcast as well as some of the other sources we've looked at to provide more information on this subject - how the mucus is produced, how it behaves in water, and how it captures and affects prey.

Cyclostomata: This article relates hagfish and lampreys, and it might provide a better opportunity to discuss evolutionary divergence.

Osteichthyes: These fish are a common hagfish prey, so it might provide a good opportunity to examine the defenses they have against hagfish (and other predators and parasites – possibly sharks and lampreys depending on environment...)

Myxine glutinosa:  It would be interesting to take an in-depth look at this species of hagfish, given that the article doesn’t have much information yet.

Choice 3: Lamprey (plus related topics)

Even before taking this class, I was interested in how the lamprey functions as a parasite – more so now that we’ve talked about its anatomy and maturation. I could contribute additional photos or create diagrams of lamprey internal anatomy for this article for reference, and create a section explaining the various anatomical structures.

Agnatha: Looking at this superclass would provide a more focused view than looking at chordates, but a wider view than looking at specific species.

Pouched lamprey: I thought it was interesting that this organism was the only member of its genus, species, and family; so I wanted to know what sets it apart.

Chordate: Members of this phylum include lampreys as well as hagfish and sharks, so it’s a way to tie everything together with respect to evolution.

Kanessa192 (talk) 19:53, 12 March 2021 (UTC)

Week 5:

Group sandbox: User:Kanessa192/New sandbox

Group discussion: Lamprey

Topics - Anatomical information in this article is lacking. We could include information about synapomorphies (Tori) and lamprey internal organs (Irene), and I feel like the conservation efforts could be updated to discuss the lamprey as an invasive species rather than a 'pest.' Focus on anatomy in terms of evolutionary adaptations and functions (Anessa).

Articles - Several of the links about other species of lampreys are red (the article doesn't actually exist). There are also citations still needed in several places.

Images/other media - Diagrams and images of lamprey internal anatomy might be useful.

Literature

Info on behavioral adaptations

Pheromones/chemical cues/olfactory receptors here

MicroRNA

Lamprey development and vertebrate jaw evolution here

Edited Talk page - added to Tori's section:  Something I’m considering adding to this article is a discussion about the anatomy of the lamprey in terms of physiological adaptations (included sources)

Bibliography for top two adaptation articles

1.) Shimeld, Sebastian & Donoghue, Phillip.  Evolutionary crossroads in developmental biology: Cyclostomes (lamprey and hagfish). Development 139, 2091-2099 (2012). doi:10.1242/dev.074716

2.) Osório, Joana & Rétaux, Sylvie.  The lamprey in evolutionary studies.  Dev Genes Evol (2008). DOI 10.1007/s00427-008-0208-1

The skeleton of a lamprey washed up on the shores of North Carolina.

Proposed contribution:

Existing content: Under Biology, there is a discussion of the teeth/mouth of the lamprey, the cartilaginous skeleton, and the fact that hagfish are the sister taxon of lampreys.

Proposed content: A physiology section that relates some of the internal anatomy to its evolutionary function and how it has diverged from related organisms.

Possible focal points:

Article 1 (above): Similarities and differences between lampreys and hagfish - i.e. skeletal system, unpaired fins, different types of cartilage.

Article 2 (above): How the nervous system of lampreys develops and how it compares to gnathostome nervous systems. Homologies exist between lampreys and jawed vertebrates.

To investigate further: How non-carnivorous lampreys scrape algae from rocks and how the lamprey immune system develops.

The image on the right might be relevant to a discussion of lamprey cartilage.

Kanessa192 (talk) 04:50, 19 March 2021 (UTC)

Week 6:

Article/section draft

Note – proposed media contribution is the skeleton photo above; could easily be referenced in the discussion of lamprey cartilage.  I decided that comparing the development of the lamprey NS to the gnathostome NS was likely too specific/in-depth for this page, and as I continued my research, it seemed more relevant to focus on camouflage and the lamprey’s climbing ability instead.  I’d still like to add some information about how the lamprey compares to the hagfish, but that might be more appropriate to add to an existing section later on.

Section Draft: Lamprey Adaptations and Functions

Different species of lamprey have many shared physical characteristics, however, the same anatomical structure can serve different functions in the lamprey depending on whether it is carnivorous.  For example, non-carnivorous species use their teeth to scrape algae from rocks for food, rather than drilling into the flesh of hosts.  The mouth and suction capabilities of the lamprey not only allow it to cling to a fish as a parasite, but provide it with limited climbing ability so that it can travel upstream and up ramps or rocks to breed.  This ability has been studied in an attempt to better understand how lampreys battle the current and move forward despite only being able to hold onto the rock at a single point.  Some scientists are also hoping to design ramps that will optimize the lamprey’s climbing ability, as lampreys are valued as food in the Northwest and need to be able to get upstream to reproduce.

Another important lamprey adaptation is its camouflage.  Similarly to many other aquatic species, most lampreys have a dark-colored back, which enables them to blend in with the ground below when seen from above by a predator.  Their light-colored undersides enable them to blend in with the bright air and water above them if a predator sees them from below.  Some species can be distinguished by their unique markings – for example, Geotria australis Gray displays two bluish stripes running the length of its body as an adult.  These markings can also sometimes be used to determine what stage of the life cycle the lamprey is in; G. australis Gray individuals lose these stripes when they approach the reproductive phase and begin to travel upstream.  Another example is Petromyzon marinus, which shifts to more of an orange color as it reaches the reproductive stage in its life cycle.

Kanessa192 (talk) 05:05, 27 March 2021 (UTC)

Week 8:

Added a review for Hagfishologists here and Cephalochordateologists here.

Hagfish Peer Review by Kanessa192

This looks really good! The proposed edits seem objective and unbiased, and I’m impressed with the number of sources you have. I also like how you structured this – having the original excerpts posted right by the edited version makes it easy to follow and gives good context. It looks like you guys are focusing on the main page and adding more about reproduction, anatomy, and phylogenetics, which is similar to what my group is attempting to do with the lamprey.

Blake: Adding photos from journal articles might not be possible, but I like the idea of creating a composite diagram that incorporates relevant information from these sources. That way, you can make sure the information is relevant to your explanation, and you can label specific nodes or areas of the diagram to reference in your text.

Kalina: The nervous system section looks interesting! Thanks for highlighting the text you’ve added, it makes things even easier to critique. My only suggestion would be to rearrange the information about the slime a little bit to make things flow better – maybe something like: Hagfish are long and vermiform, and can exude copious quantities of a milky and fibrous slime or mucus from some 100 glands or invaginations running along their flanks.[4] The species Myxine glutinosa was named for this slime. When captured and held, e.g., by the tail, they secrete the microfibrous mucus, which expands into up to 20 litres (5 1⁄4 US gallons) of sticky, gelatinous material when combined with water;[5] one litre of slime has about 40 milligrams of mucus and proteins.[6] These proteins compose very thin fibers that make hagfish slime more durable and sticky than slime excreted by other animals.[8]If they remain captured, they can tie themselves in an overhand knot, which works its way from the head to the tail of the animal, scraping off the slime as it goes and freeing them from their captor. Rheological investigations showed that hagfish slime viscosity increases in elongational flow which favors gill clogging of suction feeding fish, while its viscosity decreases in shear which facilitates scraping off the slime by the travelling-knot.[7]

Jack: I’m impressed with how much info you found on this! I had a harder time coming up with information on lamprey development and reproduction, but I did find an article that discusses (among other things) neural crest development in cyclostomes – the link is here, I’m not sure if you’d find it useful.

Since my group (lampreys) is the sister taxon to hagfish, maybe we can compare and contrast some evolutionary adaptations and developmental stages. Overall, this looks really good – looking at the original article, you might be fine referencing the images that are already included (I’d still like to see Blake’s ideas for adding more images). It seems like this all meshes well with what’s already covered in the article, and it fills in some gaps. Nice work!

Kanessa192 (talk) 05:07, 10 April 2021 (UTC)

Cephalochordate Review by Kanessa192

The level of collaboration here is impressive, but it’s a bit hard to follow all the changes that are happening. Something I’ve seen other people doing (in addition to posting the original text along with their edited version) is highlight the sentence they’ve added or modified while leaving some of the surrounding original text for context; you guys seem to be keeping track of it well but this might be helpful for any future reviews... or maybe add a ‘final draft’ section for the week with the most up-to-date content you have.

Overall, your contributions look really good in terms of being unbiased and drawing from strong sources. I think the diagram of the oral hood that you want to add is a great idea! Maybe label specific structures – even just as points (A, B, C, etc.) that you can reference in your text. There might be some overlap with what my group (Lampreyologists) is doing in that we’re both discussing synapomorphies; maybe we’ll link to one of your sections! I noticed that some other people mentioned possibly creating a new section for each of the synapomorphies, and I agree that this would fit well in your article since it’s meant to be an overview of these structures, but based on what you’ve linked, it looks like the post-anal tail is the only thing that doesn’t yet have its own page and you’d need to be careful about duplicating information.

Abby, your second edit makes this paragraph a lot more concise! The citations all look good and it’s great that you’re linking to so many different pages. Noah – very thorough coverage of the oral hood; I’m impressed that you’re tackling multiple pages. Do you plan to expand the morphology section or blend it into something that’s already on the page? Katelyn, great information for the feeding section as well. It looks like you guys have added to each other’s edits and included more citations for that part, and overall this is really interesting!

Kanessa192 (talk) 06:08, 10 April 2021 (UTC)

Week 9:

Planned response to peer review (posted to the talk page of our group sandbox as well):

Thanks to all for the feedback!  My to-do list is as follows:

Overall organization:

• Although most of our sections will be new, there are a few things (such as the lamprey skeleton image) that we need to decide where/how to integrate into the existing page.

• Clearly label our drafts so it’s obvious who’s contributing what and when (we aren’t being consistent with each other in our organization).  Currently, we have our main sections organized according to our name and topic.  I’ve broken my section down further so that it is organized by week, but I think I need to remove the subheadings from Week 5 so that the table of contents is less crowded.

• We actually got our wires crossed with formatting and confused each other a little, but since we aren’t trying to integrate our work, we’ve decided to each keep our drafts filed under our individual sections (so main section is our topic and name; subheadings for each of us will be broken down by week).

My section:

• Add another image (probably of the lamprey’s mouth as suggested by Dr. S) and be on the lookout for photos showing different pigmentation.  I’ve struggled to find usable photos of lampreys climbing, but I can link to an outside source I found that has pictures.

• Double-check neutral language as Brooke suggested and incorporate some of Jack’s suggestions re: sentence structure.

• Add links for the following words:  Lamprey, carnivorous, suction, algae, camouflage, various lamprey species.

• Continue researching into lamprey skin/pigmentation.  Focus on how camouflage varies by region and how it changes throughout the life cycle.

Kanessa192 (talk) 17:31, 14 April 2021 (UTC)

Week 11:

Section Draft 2: Lamprey Adaptations and Functions

This lateral cross-section displays the lamprey's powerful mouth (shown at left).

Different species of lamprey have many shared physical characteristics. However, the same anatomical structure can serve different functions in the lamprey depending on whether or not it is carnivorous. For example, non-carnivorous species use their teeth to scrape algae from rocks for food, rather than drilling into the flesh of hosts. The mouth and suction capabilities of the lamprey not only allow it to cling to a fish as a parasite, but provide it with limited climbing ability so that it can travel upstream and up ramps or rocks to breed. This ability has been studied in an attempt to better understand how lampreys battle the current and move forward despite only being able to hold onto the rock at a single point. Some scientists are also hoping to design ramps that will optimize the lamprey’s climbing ability, as lampreys are valued as food in the Northwest and need to be able to get upstream to reproduce.

The lamprey's light-colored underside and darker back allow it to blend in when viewed from above or below.

Another important lamprey adaptation is its camouflage. Similarly to many other aquatic species, most lampreys have a dark-colored back, which enables them to blend in with the ground below when seen from above by a predator. Their light-colored undersides allow them to blend in with the bright air and water above them if a predator sees them from below.

Lamprey coloration can also vary according to the region and specific environment in which the species is found. Some species can be distinguished by their unique markings – for example, Geotria australis individuals display two bluish stripes running the length of its body as an adult. These markings can also sometimes be used to determine what stage of the life cycle the lamprey is in; G. australis individuals lose these stripes when they approach the reproductive phase and begin to travel upstream. Another example is Petromyzon marinus, which shifts to more of an orange color as it reaches the reproductive stage in its life cycle.

Kanessa192 (talk) 22:02, 30 April 2021 (UTC)

Week 12: Integrating Image

Original text:

The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their cartilaginous skeleton, suggest they are the sister taxon (see cladistics) of all living jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes), and are usually considered the most basal group of the Vertebrata. Instead of true vertebrae, they have a series of cartilaginous structures called arcualia arranged above the notochord. Hagfish, which resemble lampreys, have traditionally been considered the sister taxon of the true vertebrates (lampreys and gnathostomes) but DNA evidence suggests that they are in fact the sister taxon of lampreys.

Edited text with image:

The cartilaginous skeleton of a lamprey washed up on a beach in North Carolina.

The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their cartilaginous skeleton shown on the right, suggest they are the sister taxon (see cladistics) of all living jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes). They are usually considered the most basal group of the Vertebrata. Instead of true vertebrae, they have a series of cartilaginous structures called arcualia arranged above the notochord. Hagfish, which resemble lampreys, have traditionally been considered the sister taxon of the true vertebrates (lampreys and gnathostomes) but DNA evidence suggests that they are in fact the sister taxon of lampreys.

Week 13: Moving Work

I moved the skeleton image and corresponding edits over first, then came back to try to decide how to integrate the Adaptations section. I'm also removing the lamprey mouth cross-section image because Irene is using the same image to illustrate general anatomy.

Both edited sections are now live!!

Morphology

The cartilaginous skeleton of a lamprey washed up on a beach in North Carolina.

The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their cartilaginous skeleton shown to the right, suggest they are the sister taxon (see cladistics) of all living jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes). They are usually considered the most basal group of the Vertebrata. Instead of true vertebrae, they have a series of cartilaginous structures called arcualia arranged above the notochord. Hagfish, which resemble lampreys, have traditionally been considered the sister taxon of the true vertebrates (lampreys and gnathostomes) but DNA evidence suggests that they are in fact the sister taxon of lampreys.

Studies have shown that lampreys are amongst the most energy-efficient swimmers. Their swimming movements generate low-pressure zones around the body, which pull rather than push their bodies through the water.

The last common ancestor of lampreys appears to have been specialized to feed on the blood and body fluids of other fish after metamorphosis. They attach their mouthparts to the target animal's body, then use three horny plates (laminae) on the tip of their piston-like tongue, one transversely and two longitudinally placed, to scrape through surface tissues until they reach body fluids. The teeth on their oral disc are primarily used to help the animal attach itself to its prey. Made of keratin and other proteins, lamprey teeth have a hollow core to give room for replacement teeth growing under the old ones. Some of the original blood-feeding forms have evolved into species that feed on both blood and flesh, and some who have become specialized to eat flesh and may even invade the internal organs of the host. Tissue feeders can also involve the teeth on the oral disc in the excision of tissue. As a result, the flesh-feeders have smaller buccal glands as they do not require to produce anticoagulant continuously and mechanisms for preventing solid material entering the branchial pouches, which could otherwise potentially clog the gills. A study of the stomach content of some lampreys has shown the remains of intestines, fins and vertebrae from their prey. Although attacks on humans do occur, they will generally not attack humans unless starved.

Carnivorous forms have given rise to the non-carnivorous species, and "giant" individuals amongst the otherwise small American brook lamprey have occasionally been observed, leading to the hypothesis that sometimes individual members of non-carnivorous forms return to the carnivorous lifestyle of their ancestors.

Research on sea lampreys has revealed that sexually mature males use a specialized heat-producing tissue in the form of a ridge of fat cells near the anterior dorsal fin to stimulate females. After having attracted a female with pheromones, the heat detected by the female through body contact will encourage spawning.

Due to certain peculiarities in their adaptive immune system, the study of lampreys provides valuable insight into the evolution of vertebrate adaptive immunity. Generated from a somatic recombination of leucine-rich repeat gene segments, lamprey leukocytes express surface variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs). This convergently evolved characteristic allows them to have lymphocytes that work as the T cells and B cells present in higher vertebrates immune system.

Northern lampreys (Petromyzontidae) have the highest number of chromosomes (164–174) among vertebrates.

Pouched lamprey (Geotria australis) larvae also have a very high tolerance for free iron in their bodies, and have well-developed biochemical systems for detoxification of the large quantities of these metal ions.

Lampreys are the only extant vertebrate to have four eyes. Most lampreys have two additional parietal eyes: a pineal and parapineal one (the exception is members of Mordacia).

Morphology

The cartilaginous skeleton of a lamprey washed up on a beach in North Carolina.

The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their cartilaginous skeleton shown to the right, suggest they are the sister taxon (see cladistics) of all living jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes). They are usually considered the most basal group of the Vertebrata. Instead of true vertebrae, they have a series of cartilaginous structures called arcualia arranged above the notochord. Hagfish, which resemble lampreys, have traditionally been considered the sister taxon of the true vertebrates (lampreys and gnathostomes) but DNA evidence suggests that they are in fact the sister taxon of lampreys.

Studies have shown that lampreys are amongst the most energy-efficient swimmers. Their swimming movements generate low-pressure zones around the body, which pull rather than push their bodies through the water.

Research on sea lampreys has revealed that sexually mature males use a specialized heat-producing tissue in the form of a ridge of fat cells near the anterior dorsal fin to stimulate females. After having attracted a female with pheromones, the heat detected by the female through body contact will encourage spawning.

Due to certain peculiarities in their adaptive immune system, the study of lampreys provides valuable insight into the evolution of vertebrate adaptive immunity. Generated from a somatic recombination of leucine-rich repeat gene segments, lamprey leukocytes express surface variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs). This convergently evolved characteristic allows them to have lymphocytes that work as the T cells and B cells present in higher vertebrates immune system.

Northern lampreys (Petromyzontidae) have the highest number of chromosomes (164–174) among vertebrates.

Pouched lamprey (Geotria australis) larvae also have a very high tolerance for free iron in their bodies, and have well-developed biochemical systems for detoxification of the large quantities of these metal ions.

Lampreys are the only extant vertebrate to have four eyes. Most lampreys have two additional parietal eyes: a pineal and parapineal one (the exception is members of Mordacia).

Adaptations

Different species of lamprey have many shared physical characteristics. However, the same anatomical structure can serve different functions in the lamprey depending on whether or not it is carnivorous. For example, non-carnivorous species use their teeth to scrape algae from rocks for food, rather than drilling into the flesh of hosts. The mouth and suction capabilities of the lamprey not only allow it to cling to a fish as a parasite, but provide it with limited climbing ability so that it can travel upstream and up ramps or rocks to breed. This ability has been studied in an attempt to better understand how lampreys battle the current and move forward despite only being able to hold onto the rock at a single point. Some scientists are also hoping to design ramps that will optimize the lamprey’s climbing ability, as lampreys are valued as food in the Northwest and need to be able to get upstream to reproduce.

The last common ancestor of lampreys appears to have been specialized to feed on the blood and body fluids of other fish after metamorphosis. They attach their mouthparts to the target animal's body, then use three horny plates (laminae) on the tip of their piston-like tongue, one transversely and two longitudinally placed, to scrape through surface tissues until they reach body fluids. The teeth on their oral disc are primarily used to help the animal attach itself to its prey. Made of keratin and other proteins, lamprey teeth have a hollow core to give room for replacement teeth growing under the old ones. Some of the original blood-feeding forms have evolved into species that feed on both blood and flesh, and some who have become specialized to eat flesh and may even invade the internal organs of the host. Tissue feeders can also involve the teeth on the oral disc in the excision of tissue. As a result, the flesh-feeders have smaller buccal glands as they do not require to produce anticoagulant continuously and mechanisms for preventing solid material entering the branchial pouches, which could otherwise potentially clog the gills. A study of the stomach content of some lampreys has shown the remains of intestines, fins and vertebrae from their prey. Although attacks on humans do occur, they will generally not attack humans unless starved.

Carnivorous forms have given rise to the non-carnivorous species that feed on algae, and "giant" individuals amongst the otherwise small American brook lamprey have occasionally been observed, leading to the hypothesis that sometimes individual members of non-carnivorous forms return to the carnivorous lifestyle of their ancestors.

The lamprey's light-colored underside and darker back allow it to blend in when viewed from above or below.

Another important lamprey adaptation is its camouflage. Similarly to many other aquatic species, most lampreys have a dark-colored back, which enables them to blend in with the ground below when seen from above by a predator. Their light-colored undersides allow them to blend in with the bright air and water above them if a predator sees them from below.

Lamprey coloration can also vary according to the region and specific environment in which the species is found. Some species can be distinguished by their unique markings – for example, Geotria australis individuals display two bluish stripes running the length of its body as an adult. These markings can also sometimes be used to determine what stage of the life cycle the lamprey is in; G. australis individuals lose these stripes when they approach the reproductive phase and begin to travel upstream. Another example is Petromyzon marinus, which shifts to more of an orange color as it reaches the reproductive stage in its life cycle.

[Life Cycle is the next section.]

Kanessa192 (talk) 16:12, 11 May 2021 (UTC)