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David Shakow
Born(1901-01-02)January 2, 1901
New York, United States
Died26 February 1981(1981-02-26) (aged 80)
Washington, DC
Cause of deathHeart Attack
NationalityRussian-American
EducationPsychology
Alma materHarvard University
Known forStudy and development of schizophrenia, Developing scientist-practitioner model template of conducting research
SpouseSophie Harap
Scientific career
FieldsPsychology, Psychopathology, Clinical Psychology
InstitutionsWorcester State Hospital, Clinical Center of the National Institutes of Health
Thesis The Nature of Deterioration in Schizophrenia Conditions



Biography

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Early Life

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David Shakow PhD. (January 2, 1901- February 26, 1981) was a first generation Russian-American born on January 2, 1901 to Russian immigrant parents Abraham Chaikowitz (Shakow) and Eva Leventhal (p. 989) [1] in New York's Lower East Side’s immigrant community. [2] Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). [3] He was raised as an Orthodox Jew. [4] In his secondary years, he attended the High School of Commerce to prepare for a business career such as the one his father and grandfather had. Additionally, Shakow also volunteered at the Madison House, a settlement for new immigrants, from the ages 13-21. [1] [5] It was there where he was exposed to Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung and William James' ideas. [1] [5]

Formal Education

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He enrolled at Harvard University, where he studied psychology, specifically psychopathology, with mentors Edwin G. Boring, William McDougall (psychologist), Frederick Wells (psychologist), William J. Crozier (psychologist), Floyd Allport, Helge Lundholm (psychologist), Anton Boisen (psychologist), and others. [4] [2] [1] Throughout his undergraduate education, Shakow, did field work at McLean Hospital, at the invitation of Helge Lundholm, during his freshman and junior years, and at Boston Psychopathic Hospital, under the supervision of Frederick Wells, during his senior year. [4] [2] [1]

After graduating from Harvard in 1922, he did a 15 month internship at the Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts under the supervision of Grace Helen Kent, who founded one of the first psychology departments in state hospitals and provided him the opportunity to learn about psychometrics. [4] [2] [1] [6] While in graduate school at Harvard, he met his future wife Sophie Harap in 1925 and married her in 1926 as he was studying to obtain his M.A.. [4] [2] [1] [7] They had two daughters and one son. [8]

In 1927, he earned a M.A. from Harvard based on a dissertation on subliminal perception. [2] He failed to earn a doctorate from Harvard in 1928 based on his study of subliminal perception because of equivocal results in his work. [2] [1] [3] In 1942, after he had developed much of the field of schizophrenia and how to study it, Shakow tried and succeeded earning a doctorate at Harvard with his dissertation The Nature of Deterioration in Schizophrenia Conditions. [1] [3] [9] The dissertation depicted a collection of his studies that he had conducted at the Worcester State Hospital, emphasizing the importance of attention and mental set theory in the psychological understanding of schizophrenia (p. 209). [4] This work was also the representation of one of the first experimental methodology applications to the study of psychopathology. Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). [3]

Work

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Early Career Stage

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Work at Worcester State Hospital
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Shakow took the position of Chief Psychologist and Director of Psychological Research at Worcester State Hospital after his first attempt in earning a doctorate. [4] [2] [1] This position lasted for 18 years. [4] He substituted Kent as head of the WSH’s Psychology department and served as both the hospital's clinician and as the research psychologist in the then new interdisciplinary research program that was dedicated to studying and understanding the nature of schizophrenia. [4] He and his colleagues studied the psychological processes and deficits related to chronic schizophrenia and recognized the need to treat patients more sensibly in order to minimize any distress from being studied. [4] [2] [1] [9] He and colleagues found differences between paranoid and hebephrenic subtypes of schizophrenia patients and also noticed differences in reaction times between schizophrenics and non-schizophrenic patients. [2] [9]

Shakow supervised more than one hounded psychological interns who were active participants of the clinical and the research aspects of the professional activities at the hospital. [2] He helped established what is now most commonly known about schizophrenia and also established rigorous scientific criteria for studying schizophrenia. [2] This rigidity included being critical on the selection of participants, acquiring proper representation of the desired population of study, the nature of schizophrenia and of the people who suffer from schizophrenia, and on the operational definitions and descriptions of the terms and concepts in studies. [2] [9] He also postulated that the sources of possible error in the conducting of studies can involve the researcher, the subject and their willingness to cooperate, and the setting. [2] [9]

Later Work

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Chicago Years

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In 1946, Shakow left WSH to become professor of psychiatry at the University Of Illinois College Of Medicine. He then assumed an additional professorial appointment at the University of Chicago's Department of Psychology. [4] [2] [9] During his 8-year period in Chicago, he took a break from doing research to do other activities such as teach, train, and participate in educational policies and curricular development. [4] Additionally, he became involved with several American Psychological Association committees and boards and also served as consultant for several branches of the federal government, contributing to the development of national policies and making recommendations for specific grants and programs from the Policy and Planning Board. Shakow was also president of the Division of Clinical Psychology, chaired APA's Committee on Training in Clinical Psychology, and was the Association's representative to the World Federation of Mental Health. [4] These later positions would eventually also play a role in the official development of the Scientist–practitioner model.

Final Professional Move: National Institute of Mental Health

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In 1954, Shakow became the first chief of the Laboratory of Psychology in the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Mental Health until the time of his death. [4] [10] He elaborated on his work with schizophrenia while in the NIMH’s research program by developing the segmental sets theory, the idea that patients who suffer schizophrenia cannot evaluate situations objectively, but only focus on certain stimulus, which make their responses to stimuli flawed. [11] While there, he continued to write and to facilitate studies and discussions of methodology in the field of psychopathology. [4]

Death

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Shakow retired from being laboratory chief in 1966 and continued to work at the NIMH as a senior research psychologist. [4] He also authored and co-authored many works and continued contributing to the study of psychoanalysis. [4] David Shakow died on February 26, 1981, two months before his 80th birthday, after suffering a heart attack while at work at the Clinical Center of the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. [4] [3] [12] [7] He was survived by his wife, Sophie, whom he was married to for 55 years, and by his 3 children. [3] He also left nine grandchildren. [8]

Legacy and Contributions

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Effect on WSH and Schizophrenia

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Shakow’s work at the WSH provided an opportunity for students of various different fields such as psychiatry, psychology, psychoanalysis, sociology, physiology, endocrinology, biochemistry, pathology, and biometrics to obtain a clinical psychology education. [10] While there, he worked on studying and understanding schizophrenia and those who suffer it. [4] [2] [1] The hospital became a model institution for other programs both in the clinical and research aspects for other programs and as a research institution because of the strong commitment to research, combination of interdisciplinary seasoned staff, considerable resources, and the scarcity of desirable positions at the time of its establishment (p 233). [2] He developed an internship program in this hospital that was to serve as a model for future internship programs. [4] [13]

Scientist-Practitioner model and Furthering Clinical Psychology Field

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Clinical psychology was still ambiguously defined as a profession fifty years after its conception because of limiting the profession to the research setting and because of the lack of standardization of teachings and the training process. [4] [2] Shakow proposed specific goals and functions for the field, training, and stipulated the forming of relationships with allied professors (p.211). [4] He also proposed that with the standardization of classes and training, clinical psychology students would not have to select and organize their coursework and training without any group support and having to be constantly defending and protecting their work and title of clinical psychologist. [14] [15] From his experience in working in medical psychiatric, Shakow formalized what clinical psychologists are to diagnose, research, and do therapy as part of their profession by both rejecting definitions that limited the psychologist to a researcher role or dilute his work with the work of other fields. [4]

As the need arose for standardization of the field and how its professionals were to study, the 1949 Boulder Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology convened at the University of Colorado and attended by 71 participants, including Shakow. He proposed a model that he first developed as he worked in the Worcester State Hospital. He presented this first draft to the Committee on Training Clinical Psychology, a committee set by the American Psychological Association, in 1941 and was generally accepted. [16] He then developed a model template as he was working as a major psychology consultant for the NIMH with the ideas that he had developed earlier and that were expanded by the organization he was leading: the Committee on Training Clinical Psychology. Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). He presented his ideas of a structured training program for those who were going to study being clinical psychologists to be scientists first and practitioners second. [16] [17] The template came to be known as “The Shakow Report,” published in the Journal of Consulting Psychology in 1945 with the title of Graduate Internship Training in Psychology. [17] It was sent in 1944 to The Committee on Training in Clinical Psychology (CTCP) before it was presented at the Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology Conference held at the University of Colorado Conference in 1949. [16] [17] The model also came to be known as the scientist-practitioner model or the Boulder Model and it is still used as a template for practice and study today.

Program for Training Clinical Psychologists

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Before 1946, there was only implicit agreement of what a clinical psychologist student should study in order to prepare themselves for practicing clinical psychology because universities were neither offering the same classes nor covering the same materials across the classes. [18] Internships for getting experience in the field were not standardized, nor were clinical psychology students given a uniform title in which they would be recognized in as they worked as interns. [18]

Shakow’s role on the training was to standardize and systematize the training students had to go through as part of his defining what clinical psychologist were to do as part of their profession. He developed a clinical internship-training program model that was inspired from his experience in the mental psychiatric facilities and was to be the model for other institutions to use in the future. [4] [2] From his internship experience and work at the WSH giving him the opportunity to influence more than one hundred psychology interns, who were active participants of the clinical and the research aspects of the professional activities at the hospital, Shakow was able to implement an official standardization of the internship program, where the students would complete certain requirements in a certain order in order for them to become accredited and competent clinical psychologists. [4] At the WSH, he implemented that clinical psychologist students at the end of their training, should be able to diagnose, do research, and perform therapy. [19] The four-year training program stressed the setting up of goals as a rough guide for the students to see the expectations and for them to be aware of what is involved in the program and prepare them for their careers as clinical psychologists. [19] This program was the working document for the Boulder Conference’s discussion on how to define the field of clinical psychology. [16]

In Honor of Shakow

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The American Psychological Association established the David Shakow Early Career Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Clinical Psychology. [20] This is an award voted on and given by the Division 12 Board of Directors of the APA, also called the Society of Clinical Psychology, to individuals who have received a doctorate within the past seven years who have contributed to the science of clinical psychology, both in science and practice, in honor of In honor of Shakow's contributions to the science and practice in the field of clinical psychology. [20] The award winner receives up to $500 dollars to travel to the winning year's APA convention. [21]

Awards, Memberships, and Recognitions

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This is a list of the awards, memberships, and recognitions Shakow was awarded with throughout his lifetime, in order of his receiving them: [1] [12] :

  • Honorary Membership in the Washington Psychoanalytic Society (1955)
  • Distinguished Contribution Award, Division of Clinical Psychology, APA (1959)
  • Collier Lecturer, University of Rochester (1960)
  • Stanley R. Dean Research Award in Schizophrenia (1963)
  • Helen Sargent Memorial Award, Menninger Foundation (1965)
  • Honorary Fellowship in the American Psychiatric Association (1969)
  • Doctor of Science, Honoris Causa, University of Rochester (1971)
  • 3rd Annual Seymour D. Vestermark Memorial Award (1971)
  • National Association of Mental Health Special Recognition Award at the 25th Anniversary of NIMH (1971)
  • First Award for Notable Contribution to Psychopathology, Section of Experimental Psychopathology, Division of Clinical Psychology, APA (1971)
  • Salmon Medal for Distinguished Service in Psychiatry (1971)
  • Honorary Membership in the American Psychoanalytic Association (1976)
  • American Psychological Association’s (APA) Distinguished Scientific Award (1975) and its Distinguished Professional Contribution Award (1976)
  • First Rapaport-Klein Memorial Lecturer (1974)
  • NIH Scientist Emeritus (1974-1986)

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Cautin, Robin (2012). "Shakow, David". Encyclopedia of the History of Psychological Theories: 989-991. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Cautin, Robin (2008). Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 44 (3): 219–237. doi:10.1002/jhbs.20312. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f Garmezy, Norman (1981). "Founder of modern clinical psychology". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 7 (3): 385–387.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Cautin, Robin (2006). David Shakow- Architect of Modern Clinical Psychology. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 207–221. ISBN 9781591474173.
  5. ^ a b "Distinguished Scientific Contribution Awards for 1975". American Psychologist. 31 (1): 64–71. 1976. doi:10.1037/h0078461. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  6. ^ Shakow, David (1974). "Grace Helen Kent". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 10 (3): 275–280. doi:10.1002/1520-6696(197407)10:3<275::AID-JHBS2300100302>3.0.CO;2-J.
  7. ^ a b Flanagan, John (1977). "David Shakow- Distinguished Professional Contribution Award for 1976". American Psychologist. 32 (1): 72-87. doi:10.1037/h0078484.
  8. ^ a b "Dr. David Shakow, 80; Noted U.S. Psychologist". The New York Times. 27 February 1981. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Shakow, David (1977). Psychological Issues- Schizophrenia: Selected Papers Volume 10 Number 2 (Monograph 38 ed.). New York, NY: International Universities Press, Inc. ISBN 0-8236-6002-8.
  10. ^ a b Rosenzweig, Saul (1985). "The way it was- Remembering David Shakow". American Psychologist. 40 (10): 1140-1141. doi:10.1037/h0092155.
  11. ^ Mirsky, Allan (1988). "Research on Schizophrenia in the NIMH Laboratory of Psychology and Psychopathology". Research on Schizophrenia in the NIMH Laboratory of Psychology and Psychopathology, 1954-1987. 14 (2): 151-156.
  12. ^ a b Garmezy, Norman; Holzman, Philip (1984). "Obituary David Shakow (1901-1981)". American Psychologist. 39 (6): 698-699. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.6.698.
  13. ^ Shakow, David (1946). "The Worcester internship program". Journal of Consulting Psychology. 10 (4): 191-200. doi:10.1037/h0059797.
  14. ^ Shakow, David (1976). "Reflections on a do-it-yourself training program in clinical psychology". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 12 (1): 14–30. doi:10.1002/1520-6696(197601)12:1<14::AID-JHBS2300120103>3.0.CO;2-F.
  15. ^ Raimy, Victor (1950). Training in Clinical Psychology. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  16. ^ a b c d Baker, David; Ludy, Benjamin (2000). "The Affirmation of the Scientist-Practitioner- A look back at Boulder". American Psychologist. 55 (2): 241-247. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.2.241.
  17. ^ a b c Peterson, Christopher; Park, Nansook (2005). "The Enduring Value of the Boulder Model- "Upon this rock we will build"". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 61 (9): 1147–1150. doi:10.1002/jclp.20154.
  18. ^ a b Routh, Donald (2000). "Clinical psychology training: A history of ideas and practices prior to 1946". American Psychologist. 55 (2): 236-241. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.2.236.
  19. ^ a b Shakow, David (1942). "The training of the clinical psychologist". Journal of Consulting Psychology. 6 (6): 277-288. doi:10.1037/h0059917.
  20. ^ a b "Fellowships and Awards". Society of Clinical Psychology. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
  21. ^ "David Shakow Early Career Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Clinical Psychology". American Psychological Association. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
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