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User:Ilovesushi16/Attenuated vaccine

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An attenuated vaccine (or a live attenuated vaccine, LAV) is a vaccine created by reducing the virulence of a pathogen, but still keeping it viable (or "live") for an immune response.[1] Attenuation takes an infectious agent and alters it so that it becomes harmless or less virulent.[2] Virulence is reduced by selecting for pathogens that grow more effectively in non-human hosts.[3] These vaccines contrast to those produced by "killing" the virus, known as an inactivated vaccine.

Attenuated vaccines stimulate a strong and effective immune response that is long-lasting without inducing the disease itself.[3][4] In comparison to inactivated vaccines, attenuated vaccines produce a stronger and more durable immune response with a quick immunity onset.[5][6][7] Attenuated vaccines function by encouraging the body to create antibodies and memory immune cells in response to the specific pathogen which the vaccine protects against.[8] Common examples of live attenuated vaccines are measles, mumps, rubella, yellow fever, polio and some influenza vaccines.[4]

History

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The history of vaccine development started with the creation of the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner in the late 18th century.[9] Jenner discovered that vaccinating a human with an animal pox virus would grant immunity against smallpox, one of the most devastating diseases in human history.[10][11] Although the original smallpox vaccine is sometimes considered to be an attenuated vaccine because it is live, it was not strictly-speaking attenuated since it was not derived directly from smallpox. Instead, it was based on the related and milder cowpox disease.[12][13] The idea for attenuated vaccines was that something toxic to animals would be weakened for humans.[14] The discovery that diseases could be artificially attenuated came in the late 19th century when Louis Pasteur was able to derive an attenuated strain of chicken cholera, the cause of chicken diarrheal disease, and successfully demonstrate attenuation in humans.[12][14] Pasteur applied this knowledge to develop an attenuated anthrax vaccine and demonstrating its effectiveness in a public experiment.[15] This was then followed by the first rabies vaccine produced by Pasteur and Emile Roux by growing the virus in rabbits and drying the affected nervous tissue.[15]

The first approach to developing attenuated vaccines was by exposure of the pathogen to heat or oxygen, which was used in developing the rabies vaccine.[14] However, more effective techniques of cultivating a virus repeatedly in artificial media and isolating less virulent strains was pioneered in the early 20th century by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin who developed an attenuated tuberculosis vaccine called the BCG vaccine.[9] This technique was later used by several teams when developing the vaccine for yellow fever, first by Sellards and Laigret, and then by Theiler and Smith.[9][12][16] The vaccine developed by Theiler and Smith proved to be hugely successful and helped establish recommended practices and regulations for many other vaccines. These include the growth of viruses in primary tissue culture (e.g., chick embryos), as opposed to animals, and the use of the seed stock system which uses the original attenuated viruses as opposed to derived viruses (done to reduce variance in vaccine development and decrease the chance of adverse effects).[12][16] The middle of the 20th century saw the work of many prominent virologists including Sabin, Hilleman, and Enders, and the introduction of several successful attenuated vaccines, such as those against polio, measles, mumps, and rubella which we still use today.[17][18][19][20]

Development

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Attenuated viruses

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Viruses may be attenuated using the principles of evolution via serial passage of the virus through a foreign host species, such as:[21][22]

The initial virus population is applied to a foreign host. Through natural genetic variability or induced mutation, a small percentage of the viral particles should have the capacity to infect the new host.[22][23] These strains will continue to evolve within the new host and the virus will gradually lose its efficacy in the original host, due to lack of selection pressure.[22][23] This process is known as "passage" in which the virus becomes so well-adapted to the foreign host that it is no longer harmful to the subject that is to receive the vaccine.[23] This makes it easier for the host immune system to eliminate the agent and create the immunological memory cells to protect the human host if they are infected with a similar version of the virus.[23]

Viruses may also be attenuated via reverse genetics.[24] Attenuation by genetics is also used in the production of oncolytic viruses.[25]

Attenuated bacteria

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Bacteria is typically attenuated by passage, similar to the method used in viruses.[26] Gene knockout guided by reverse genetics is also used.[27]

Administration

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Attenuated vaccines can be administered in a variety of ways:

Note: Oral vaccine or subcutaneous/intramuscular injection are for individuals older than12months. Live attenuated vaccines, with the exception of the rotavirus vaccine given at 6 weeks, is not indicated for infants younger than 9 months. [28]

Mechanism

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Vaccines function by encouraging the creation of cells, such as CD8+ and CD4+ T lymphocytes, or molecules, such as antibodies, that are specific to the pathogen. The cells and molecules can either prevent or reduce infection by killing infected cells or by producing interleukins. The specific effectors evoked can be different based on the vaccine. Live attenuated vaccines tend to help with the production of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes and T-dependent antibody responses. A vaccine is only effective for as long as the body maintains a population of these cells.[29]

Attenuated vaccines are “weakened” version of pathogens (virus or bacteria). They are modified so that it cannot cause harm or disease in the body but are still able to activate the immune system. This type of vaccine works by activating both the cellular and humoral immune responses of the adaptive immune system. When a person receives an oral or injection of the vaccine, B cells, which help make antibodies, are activated in two ways: T cell-dependent and T-cell independent.[30]

In T-cell dependent activation of B cells, B cells first recognize and present the antigen on MHCII receptors. T-cells can then recognize this presentation and bind to the B cell, resulting in clonal proliferation. This also helps IgM and plasma cells production as well as immunoglobulin switching. On the other hand, T-cell independent activation of B cells is due to non-protein antigens. This can lead to production of IgM antibodies. Being able to produce a B-cell response as well as memory killer T cells is a key feature of attenuated virus vaccines that help induce a potent immunity.[31]

Safety

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Live-attenuated vaccines are relatively safe and stimulate a strong and effective immune response that is long-lasting.[32] Given that pathogens are attenuated, it is extremely rare for pathogens to revert to their pathogenic form and subsequently cause disease.[33] Additionally, within the five WHO-recommended live attenuated vaccines (tuberculosis, oral polio, measles, rotavirus, and yellow fever), severe adverse reactions are extremely rare.[33]

Individuals with severely compromised immune systems (e.g., HIV-infection, chemotherapy, combined immunodeficiencies) typically should not receive live-attenuated vaccines as they may not be able to produce an adequate immune response to the weakened pathogen.[32][33][34][35] Household contacts of immunodeficient individuals are still able to receive most attenuated vaccines since there is no increased risk of infection transmission, with the exception of the oral polio vaccine.[35]

As a precaution, live-attenuated vaccines are not typically administered during pregnancy.[33][36] This is due to the risk of transmission of the virus across the placenta between the mother and fetus.[36][37] In particular, the varicella, yellow fever, and measles-mumps-rubella vaccines have been shown to have adverse effects on fetuses and nursing babies.[36][37]

Some live attenuated vaccines have additional common, mild adverse effects due to their route of administration.[36] For example, the live attenuated influenza vaccine is given nasally and is associated with nasal congestion, runny nose, wheezing, or headache.[36][38] Other common, mild adverse effects include sore arm or redness at the injection site.[38]

Compared to inactivated vaccines, live-attenuated vaccines are more prone to immunization errors as they must be kept under strict conditions during the cold chain and carefully prepared (e.g., during reconstitution).[32][33][34]

References

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  1. ^ Badgett, Marty R.; Auer, Alexandra; Carmichael, Leland E.; Parrish, Colin R.; Bull, James J. (October 2002). "Evolutionary Dynamics of Viral Attenuation". Journal of Virology. 76 (20): 10524–10529. doi:10.1128/JVI.76.20.10524-10529.2002. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 136581. PMID 12239331.
  2. ^ Pulendran, Bali; Ahmed, Rafi (June 2011). "Immunological mechanisms of vaccination". Nature Immunology. 12 (6): 509–517. doi:10.1038/ni.2039. ISSN 1529-2908. PMC 3253344. PMID 21739679.
  3. ^ a b Bartlett, Brenda L.; Pellicane, Anthony J.; Tyring, Stephen K. (2009). "Vaccine immunology". Dermatologic Therapy. 22 (2): 104–109. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.01223.x. ISSN 1529-8019. PMID 19335722.
  4. ^ a b "Vaccine Types | Vaccines". www.vaccines.gov. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  5. ^ Gil, Carmen; Latasa, Cristina; García-Ona, Enrique; Lázaro, Isidro; Labairu, Javier; Echeverz, Maite; Burgui, Saioa; García, Begoña; Lasa, Iñigo; Solano, Cristina (2020). "A DIVA vaccine strain lacking RpoS and the secondary messenger c-di-GMP for protection against salmonellosis in pigs". Veterinary Research. 51 (1): 3. doi:10.1186/s13567-019-0730-3. ISSN 0928-4249. PMC 6954585. PMID 31924274.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ Tretyakova, Irina; Lukashevich, Igor S.; Glass, Pamela; Wang, Eryu; Weaver, Scott; Pushko, Peter (2013-02-04). "Novel Vaccine against Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Combines Advantages of DNA Immunization and a Live Attenuated Vaccine". Vaccine. 31 (7): 1019–1025. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.12.050. ISSN 0264-410X. PMC 3556218. PMID 23287629.
  7. ^ Zou, Jing; Xie, Xuping; Luo, Huanle; Shan, Chao; Muruato, Antonio E.; Weaver, Scott C.; Wang, Tian; Shi, Pei-Yong (2018-09-07). "A single-dose plasmid-launched live-attenuated Zika vaccine induces protective immunity". EBioMedicine. 36: 92–102. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.08.056. ISSN 2352-3964. PMC 6197676. PMID 30201444.
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  9. ^ a b c Plotkin, Stanley (2014-08-26). "History of vaccination". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (34): 12283–12287. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11112283P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1400472111. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4151719. PMID 25136134.
  10. ^ Eyler, John M. (October 2003). "Smallpox in history: the birth, death, and impact of a dread disease". Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 142 (4): 216–220. doi:10.1016/s0022-2143(03)00102-1. ISSN 0022-2143. PMID 14625526.
  11. ^ Thèves, Catherine; Crubézy, Eric; Biagini, Philippe (2016-09-15), Drancourt; Raoult (eds.), "History of Smallpox and Its Spread in Human Populations", Paleomicrobiology of Humans, vol. 4, no. 4, American Society of Microbiology, pp. 161–172, doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.poh-0004-2014, ISBN 978-1-55581-916-3, PMID 27726788, retrieved 2020-11-14
  12. ^ a b c d Galinski, Mark S.; Sra, Kuldip; Haynes, John I.; Naspinski, Jennifer (2015), Nunnally, Brian K.; Turula, Vincent E.; Sitrin, Robert D. (eds.), "Live Attenuated Viral Vaccines", Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 1–44, doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45024-6_1, ISBN 978-3-662-45024-6, retrieved 2020-11-14
  13. ^ Minor, Philip D. (2015-05-01). "Live attenuated vaccines: Historical successes and current challenges". Virology. 479–480: 379–392. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2015.03.032. ISSN 0042-6822. PMID 25864107.
  14. ^ a b c Plotkin, Stanley (2014-08-26). "History of vaccination". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (34): 12283–12287. doi:10.1073/pnas.1400472111. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4151719. PMID 25136134.
  15. ^ a b Schwartz, M. (7 July 2008). "The life and works of Louis Pasteur". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 91 (4): 597–601. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01495.x. ISSN 1364-5072. PMID 11576293. S2CID 39020116.
  16. ^ a b Frierson, J. Gordon (June 2010). "The Yellow Fever Vaccine: A History". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 83 (2): 77–85. ISSN 0044-0086. PMC 2892770. PMID 20589188.
  17. ^ Shampo, Marc A.; Kyle, Robert A.; Steensma, David P. (July 2011). "Albert Sabin—Conqueror of Poliomyelitis". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 86 (7): e44. doi:10.4065/mcp.2011.0345. ISSN 0025-6196. PMC 3127575. PMID 21719614.
  18. ^ Newman, Laura (2005-04-30). "Maurice Hilleman". BMJ: British Medical Journal. 330 (7498): 1028. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7498.1028. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 557162.
  19. ^ Katz, S. L. (2009). "John F. Enders and measles virus vaccine--a reminiscence". Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 329: 3–11. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70523-9_1. ISBN 978-3-540-70522-2. ISSN 0070-217X. PMID 19198559.
  20. ^ Plotkin, Stanley A. (2006-11-01). "The History of Rubella and Rubella Vaccination Leading to Elimination". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 43 (Supplement_3): S164–S168. doi:10.1086/505950. ISSN 1058-4838. PMID 16998777.
  21. ^ Jordan, Ingo; Sandig, Volker (2014-04-11). "Matrix and Backstage: Cellular Substrates for Viral Vaccines". Viruses. 6 (4): 1672–1700. doi:10.3390/v6041672. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 4014716. PMID 24732259.
  22. ^ a b c Nunnally, Brian K.; Turula, Vincent E.; Sitrin, Robert D., eds. (2015). Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45024-6. ISBN 978-3-662-45023-9. S2CID 39542692.
  23. ^ a b c d Hanley, Kathryn A. (December 2011). "The double-edged sword: How evolution can make or break a live-attenuated virus vaccine". Evolution. 4 (4): 635–643. doi:10.1007/s12052-011-0365-y. ISSN 1936-6426. PMC 3314307. PMID 22468165.
  24. ^ Nogales, Aitor; Martínez-Sobrido, Luis (2016-12-22). "Reverse Genetics Approaches for the Development of Influenza Vaccines". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 18 (1): 20. doi:10.3390/ijms18010020. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 5297655. PMID 28025504.
  25. ^ Gentry GA (1992). "Viral thymidine kinases and their relatives". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 54 (3): 319–55. doi:10.1016/0163-7258(92)90006-L. PMID 1334563.
  26. ^ "Immunology and Vaccine-Preventable Diseases" (PDF). CDC.
  27. ^ Xiong, Kun; Zhu, Chunyue; Chen, Zhijin; Zheng, Chunping; Tan, Yong; Rao, Xiancai; Cong, Yanguang (24 April 2017). "Vi Capsular Polysaccharide Produced by Recombinant Salmonella enterica Serovar Paratyphi A Confers Immunoprotection against Infection by Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi". Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 7: 135. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2017.00135. PMC 5401900. PMID 28484685.
  28. ^ "Your Child's Immunizations: Rotavirus Vaccine (RV) (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth". kidshealth.org. Retrieved 2022-09-15.
  29. ^ Policy (OIDP), Office of Infectious Disease and HIV/AIDS (2021-04-26). "Vaccine Types". HHS.gov. Retrieved 2022-09-15. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  30. ^ Sompayrac, Lauren (2019). How the immune system works (Sixth edition ed.). Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 978-1-119-54212-4. OCLC 1083261548. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  31. ^ Sompayrac, Lauren (2019). How the immune system works (Sixth edition ed.). Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 978-1-119-54212-4. OCLC 1083261548. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  32. ^ a b c "Vaccine Types | Vaccines". www.vaccines.gov. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  33. ^ a b c d e "MODULE 2 – Live attenuated vaccines (LAV) - WHO Vaccine Safety Basics". vaccine-safety-training.org. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  34. ^ a b Yadav, Dinesh K.; Yadav, Neelam; Khurana, Satyendra Mohan Paul (2014-01-01), Verma, Ashish S.; Singh, Anchal (eds.), "Chapter 26 - Vaccines: Present Status and Applications", Animal Biotechnology, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 491–508, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-416002-6.00026-2, ISBN 978-0-12-416002-6, retrieved 2020-11-16
  35. ^ a b Sobh, Ali; Bonilla, Francisco A. (Nov 2016). "Vaccination in Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice. 4 (6): 1066–1075. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2016.09.012. PMID 27836056.
  36. ^ a b c d e Su, John R.; Duffy, Jonathan; Shimabukuro, Tom T. (2019), "Vaccine Safety", Vaccinations, Elsevier, pp. 1–24, doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-55435-0.00001-x, ISBN 978-0-323-55435-0, S2CID 239378645, retrieved 2020-11-17
  37. ^ a b Bozzo, Pina; Narducci, Andrea; Einarson, Adrienne (2011). "Vaccination during pregnancy". Canadian Family Physician. 57 (5): 555–557. ISSN 0008-350X. PMC 3093587. PMID 21571717.
  38. ^ a b "Possible Side effects from Vaccines | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2022-04-06. Retrieved 2022-09-12.
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