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According to the Equal Justice Initiative, 4084 African Americans were lynched in the South between 1877 and 1950,[1] of which, 25 percent were accused of sexual assault and nearly 30 percent, murder.[1] Many were in public view. White jurisdictions often refused to prosecute (indict) members of lynch mobs. When indictments were filed, all-White juries refused to convict.

In The Confessions of Nat Turner, published in 1831 by Thomas Ruffin Gray, Turner explains how he saw the divine signs that vindicated him as an instrument of vengeance and established his prophetic status.

See also: Nat Turner's slave rebellion § Nat Turner
"The hour of grim revel at length came, and the American Sampson [sic] raised his hand, but for a purpose far different than that which the poet dreaded – not to shake, but to stay up the tottering temple of American liberties – that temple in which he had only received insult and and unutterable wrong."

Wells travels

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1893
1894
Departed Boston, arriving in Liverpool March 1, 1894, aboard the SS Lake Ontario, Allan Line, in cabin class.
SS Lake Ontario
  • March 22, 1894: Hope Hall, Liverpool, "Lynch Law in the Southern States of America". Hope Hall was a revivalist preaching house that stood from 1853 to 1916. The lecture was attended by Sir Edward Russell, editor of the Liverpool Post. The event was supported by Rev. Charles Frederic Aked (1864–1941), who, from 1907 to 1911, was pastor of the John D. Rockefeller Church (Fifth Avenue Baptist) in Manhattan, the forerunner to Riverside Church. Celestine Edwards also supported the event. Ida chose "Aked" as the middle name of her first child with Ferdinand: Charles Aked Barnett.
  • March 25, 1894; 3:30 pm: Men's Pleasant Sunday Afternoon Society (P.S.A.), aka Men's Own Brotherhood – at the Norwood Congregational Church, West Derby Road, Liverpool, "The Disabilities and Wrongs of the Colored Race in the Southern States of America".

Thomas Blackshear

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On February 1, 1990, at the start of Black History Month in the U.S., the U.S. Postal Service dedicated a 25¢ stamp commemorating Wells in a ceremony at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. The stamp, designed by Thomas Blackshear II, features a portrait of Wells illustrated from a composite of photographs of her taken during the mid-1890s. Wells is the twenty-fifth African American entry – and fourth woman African American – on a U.S. Postage stamp. She is the thirteenth in the Postal Service's Black Heritage series.

Big test

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Test 1: Rose rose to put rose roes on her rows of roses.[2]
Test 2: Violet vilely violated violets.[3]: 2–5 
Test[4]
Test[5]

Notes and references

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b "Key Findings", p. 4.
  2. ^ Kansas City Times, July 7, 1920.
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Newspapers 2020 Aug 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Wells-Barnett Museum (home page).
  5. ^ Chesapeake, O. & S. R. Co. v. Wells, 1887.

References

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News media

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References, fixed

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  • OCLC 936079991 (all editions)
  • Allen, James E. (born 1954); Littlefield John Spencer (born 1961) (editors and compilers); forward by Congressman John Lewis; contributors: Hilton Als and Leon F. Litwack (2011) [1994]. Without Sanctuary: Photographs and Postcards of Lynching in America. Sante Fe: Twin Palms Publisher. {{cite book}}: |last1= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |lay-date=, |lay-url=, |nopp=, |lay-format=, and |lay-source= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    Print:
    1. Book (1st ed.) (July 31, 1999); OCLC 936079991
    2. Book (10th ed.) (February 1, 2000): OCLC 994750311, 751138477; ISBN 0-944092-69-1; ISBN 978-0-944092-69-9
    3. Book (11th ed.) (2011): OCLC 1075938297

    Exhibitions, film, digital:

    1. Roth Horowitz Gallery, 160A East 70th Street, Manhattan (January 14, 2000 – February 12, 2000); Andrew Roth and Glenn Horowitz, gallery co-owners, Witness: Photographs of Lynchings from the Collection of James Allen and John Littlefield, organized by Andrew Roth
    2. New York Historical Society (March 14, 2000 – October 1, 2000); OCLC 809988821, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America, curated by James Allen and Julia Hotton
    3. Andy Warhol Museum (September 22, 2001 – February 21, 2002), The Without Sanctuary Project, curated by James Allen; co-directed by Jessica Arcand and Margery King
    4. Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park (May 1, 2002 – December 31, 2002), Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America; OCLC 782970109, curated by Joseph F. Jordan, PhD (né Joseph Ferdinand Jordan, Jr.; born 1951); Douglas H. Quin, PhD (born 1956) exhibition designer; National Park Service MLK site team: Frank Catroppa, Saudia Muwwakkil, and Melissa English-Rias
    5. The 2002 short film, Without Sanctuary, directed by Matt Dibble (né Matthew Phillips Dibble; born 1959) and produced by Joseph F. Jordan, PhD (né Joseph Ferdinand Jordan, Jr.; born 1951), accompanied the 2002–2003 exhibition by the same name, Without Sanctuary, at the Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park (co-sponsored by Emory University)
    6. Digital format (2008): OCLC 1179211921, 439904269 (Overview, Movie, Photos, Forum)
    7. Official website; part of collection at the Robert W. Woodruff Library at Emory University
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  • The Red Record at Project Gutenberg


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see also:
CHARLES OGLETREE, FROM LYNCH MOBS TO THE KILLING STATE: RACE AND THE DEATH PENALTY IN AMERICA 58 (2006) (“Though lynching had been used in the late 1800s as a form of punishment for whites, Mexicans, Chinese, and Native Americans, by the early 1900s, it had taken on a distinctly black/white racial character.”).
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      1. "Michon Boston" (1962–  ), pp. 366–367
      2. Iola's Letter (1994), pp. 368–408


    https://books.google.com/books?id=i0EOAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover
    https://books.google.com/books?id=ZC_sDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover

    https://www.google.com/books/edition/Racialized_Protest_and_the_State/ZC_sDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22white+juries+refused%22+lynchings&pg=PT24&printsec=frontcover

    /https://www.google.com/books/edition/Historic_World_Leaders_North_South_Ameri/ljsOAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22Had+Wells-Barnett+been+able+to+see+the+future%22&dq=%22Had+Wells-Barnett+been+able+to+see+the+future%22&printsec=frontcover
    /i0EOAQAAMAAJ
    Vera J. Katz: 1969 to 2001


    55. Townes, in Womanist Hope, Womanist Justice, discusses the Willard/Wells conflict as a quintessential case study in conflict between black and white womanist/feminist agendas. In Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism and History, Vron Ware recounts the hostile response Ida B. Wells provoked when she republished Frances Willard's 1890 New York Voice interview implying lynching was a national necessity (New York: Verso, 1992).


    Freedom's Journal, founded in 1827 in New York City
    The North Star, founded by Frederick Douglass in 1848 in Rochester, New York
    "Says Negros Are Only Lynched for Assault on Women," The Inter Ocean, September 11,1894
    With respect to the surname of Ida B. Well's mother, Lizzie, is believed to have been born to in 1844 to George Washington and Mary Anna Arrington on a plantation in Appomattox County, Virginia, owned by William Arrington. By October 1958, Lizzie was owned by a Memphis architect, Spires Boling (1812–1880).


    was born into slavery, her maiden name reflected the surname of her two owners, 


    was born into slavery.


    's maiden name was that of

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