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POSDCORB edits

influence from French History and History of Brownlow committee

1.1 Brownlow Committee

In January of 1937, a 53 page document known as the Brownlow report  was submitted to congress as  a study entitled Administrative Management in, the Government of the United States. This document is widely quoted in public administration and political science research as a landmark study specifically designed to improve executive branch management.There are five accompanying studies that represent the complete Brownlow Report illustrate the modern relevance of the Brownlow report to public administration theory and practice.(9)

2.) Influence from Henri Fayol and French administration theory

2.1) Fayol’s influence on Luther Gulick

Luther Gulick, one of the Brownlow report authors, states that his statement of the work of a chief executive is adapted from the functional analysis elaborated by Henri Fayol in his "Industrial and General Administration". Indeed, Fayol's work includes fourteen principles and five elements of management that lay the foundations of Gulick's POSDCORB tasks of an executive.Fayol's influence upon Gulick is readily apparent in the five elements of management discussed in his book, which are:

• Planning - examining the future and drawing up plans of actions

• Organizing - building up the structure (labor and material) of the undertaking
• Command - maintaining activity among the personnel
• Co-ordination - unifying and harmonizing activities and efforts
• Control - seeing that everything occurs in conformity with policies and practices

In his 1987 piece "Deja Vu: French Antecedents of American Public Administration," Daniel Martin notes that virtually all of the principles in American Public Administration up to 1937 and the coining of the POSDCORB acronym, including the POSDCORB principles, were present in the French literature on the subject by 1859, but that this literature had largely been forgotten by the theorists of that era, thus the "re-invention" of these principles in the later French and American literature.

2.2) Luther Gullick’s interpretation and elaboration of POSDCORB prinicples

Gulick's "Notes on the Theory of Organization" further defines the principles of POSDCORB by explaining that if an executive's workload becomes too overwhelming, some of the elements of POSDCORB can be organized as subdivisions of the executive, depending on the size and complexity of the enterprise.

Under Organizing, Gulick emphasized the division and specialization of labor in a manner that will increase efficiency. Gulick notes that there are three limitations to division of labor. The first occurs when labor is divided to the point where any one task in the division of labor would require less than the full-time of a worker, in which case a worker may need to be employed in other tasks to fill up their time. The second limitation to division of labor arises from technology and custom, where certain tasks may only be handled by certain workers either because of a lack of technological means or customs at the time. Gulick gives the example of a single worksite in which only plumbers do the plumbing work and electricians do the electrical work, though this may not take up their full work time. Work in these areas could be re-combined in a manner to increase efficiency, however union considerations could prevent this. The third limitation to division of labor is that it must not pass beyond physical division into organic division, or intricately related activities must not be separated from each other. Gulick gives the example that while it may seem more efficient to have the front end of a cow grazing in pasture at all times and the back half being milked at all times, this would not work due to the intricate connection between the halves that is needed for the whole to function.

Gulick notes that organization of specialized workers can be done in four ways which are:

• By the purpose the workers are serving, such as furnishing water, providing education, or controlling crime. Gulick lists these in his organizational tables as vertical organizations.
• By the process the workers are using, such as engineering, doctoring, lawyering, or statistics. Gulick lists these in his organizational tables as horizontal organizations.
• By the clientelle or material or the persons or things being dealt with, such as immigrants, veterans, forests, mines, or parks in government; or such as a department store's furniture department, clothing department, hardware department, or shoe department in the private sector.
• By the place where the workers do their work.

Gulick is careful to recognize that these modes of organization can often cross, forming a complex and interrelated organizational structure where organizations like schools will include workers and professionals not in the field of education such as doctors or nurses, janitors, secretaries, police departments might include non-police professionals, a shoe department including buyers as well as salespeople, etc.

Under Coordination, Gulick notes that two methods can be used to achieve coordination of divided labor. The first is by organization, or placing workers under managers who coordinate their efforts. The second is by dominance of an idea, where a clear idea of what needs to be done is developed in each worker, and each worker fits their work to the needs of the whole. Gulick notes that these two ideas are not mutually exclusive, and that most enterprises function best when both are utilized.

Gulick notes that any manager will have a finite amount of time and energy, and discusses span of control under coordination. Drawing heavily from military organizational theory and the work of V. A. Graicunas, Sir Ian Hamilton, and Henri Fayol, Gulick notes that the number of subordinates that can be handled under any single manager will depend on factors such as organizational stability, the specialization of the subordinates and whether their manager comes from the same field or specialty, and space. Gulick stops short of giving a definite number of subordinates that any one manager can control, but authors such as Sir Ian Hamilton and Lyndall Urwick have settled on numbers between three and six. Span of control was later expanded upon and defended in depth by Lyndall Urwick in his 1956 piece The Manager's Span of Control.

Also under coordination, as well as organization, Gulick emphasizes the theory of unity of command, that each worker should only have one direct superior so as to avoid confusion and inefficiency.

Still another theory borrowed from military organizational theory, particularly Sir Ian Hamilton and Lyndall Urwick and brought to prominence in non-military management and public administration by Gulick and Urwick is the distinction between operational components of an organization, the do-ers, and coordinating, the coordinating components of an organization who do the knowing, thinking, and planning. In the military, this is divided between "line" and "staff" functions. Gulick gives the private-sector example of a holding company performing limited coordinating, planning, and finance functions, with subsidiary companies carrying out their work with extensive autonomy as it saw fit according to the parent company's overall direction.

2.3) Henri Fayol’s fourteen principles of management

• Division of Work: Henry Fayol’s first principle for management states that staff perform better at work when they are assigned jobs according to their specialties.
• Authority and Responsibility: This principle suggests the need for managers to have authority in order to command subordinates to perform jobs while being accountable for their actions.
• Discipline: This principle advocates for clearly-defined rules and regulations aimed at achieving good employee discipline and obedience.
• Unity of Command: This principle states that employees should receive orders from and report directly to one boss only.
• Unity of Direction: This principle proposes that there should be only one plan, one objective, and one head for each of the plans.
• Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest: The interests of the organisation supersede every other interest of staff, individuals, or groups.
• Remuneration of Personnel: Payment of staff salaries should be as deserved. The salary should be reasonable to both staff and management and neither party should be short-changed. The salary of every staff member must be justifiable.
• Centralization:This principle suggests that decision-making should be centralised. This means that decision-making and dishing-out of orders should come from the top management (central) to the middle management, where the decisions are converted into strategies and are interpreted for the line staff who execute them (decentralisation)
• Scalar Chain (line of authority with peer level communication): This principle is a product of the formal system of organisation. It is also known as the hierarchy principle. It asserts that communication in the organisation should be vertical only. It insists that a single uninterrupted chain of authority should exist in organisations.
• Order: This is another formal organisational control system which has been interpreted in different ways.
• Equity: Another word for equity is fairness. Henri Fayol suggested that managers should be fair to their staff. But the fairness required, probably, is such that must make staff to comply with principle
• Stability of Tenure of Personnel: In this principle, Fayol expresses the need to recruit the right staff and train them on the job with a hope to retain them for long.
• Initiative: A good manager must be one who can be creative to initiate new ideas and also be able to implement them. Fayol was direct to managers at this point
• Esprit de Corps: This is a French phrase which means enthusiasm and devotion among a group of people. This is imperative as the existence of an organisation is a result of the coming together of men and women under a collective interest

Job Share edits

Job Share in other Countries and areas

Job Share in South Africa

In South Africa, job sharing has been implemented into the work force. CEO of Kelly , South Africa's first job recruitment agency , Kayee Vittee , believes “The more pressure exists in the workplace, the more severe the impact on quality and productivity. Subsequently, this also has a detrimental effect on employees’ wellbeing in general.” Solidarity, a South African trade union that also protects and negotiates workers rights recently developed a social plan that encourages job share as an optimum alternative. South Africa's current economy, as of April, 2016, is erratic and unemployment rate is high so South African citizens do not see job share as a solution though it is a resolution for the current economy. (8).

Job Share in Australia

Jeremy Hayman, a senior lecturer at Auckland University of Technology in Human Resource Management and Employee Relations collected data and completed a questionnaire from office employees in a large Western Australia university. Though the study was limited to University employees, the primary and recognized finding is that the flexibility provided by job sharing can benefit the integration of work, family and personal life, ultimately providing a better work experience for the employee and a better work environment especially in women aged 30-39. Though the literature on job share in Australia is largely under represented compared to other developed countries, Hayman's research was more responsive then other Australian surveys regarding job share. The findings for this study only begin to scrap the surface of job share being implemented in Australia and transforming management practice and work and social life balance. (13)

Job Share in the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom has implemented job sharing for a while. In some European countries, the  job sharing arrangement is already a common practice in the workforce. Companies in countries like the Czech Republic and Poland, job sharing has only recently emerged as a more widespread practice without being specifically regulated. Other countries like Slovenia and Slovakia have implemented legal provisions.The United Kingdom has Eurofound, a European agency created by the European council in May of 1975 to create better working and living environments for Europeans. Eurofound meets annually to decide policy and in 2015, Eurofound formally defined job sharing as a new form of employment. (10)

Job Share in the Caribbean

Caribbean countries like Puerto Rico and Haiti have also enforced job sharing. A few of the Caribbean islands in the Western hemisphere that have yet to adapt to the growth in the economy can possibly benefit most from job share. Many of these Caribbean countries and islands have experienced a large number of their qualified human capital who have moved towards the United States mainland, making the job supply and demand market more inconsistent and the economy more unstable. The job share program proves to be a very cost conscious from economic and business views. (11)

Annotated bibliography: Job Share

Howlings, Judith. "The Right To Job Share After Maternity Leave." People Management 3.(1997): 44-45. Business Abstracts with Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 25 Oct. 2016

This article by Judith Howlings is an informative article about job sharing and maternal/paternal leave in the United Kingdom. This article is important because it discusses job sharing, and the reasons for the arrangement in other developed countries. This article is an excellent source in describing the job sharing arrangement and why it is done  in other countries.

Marchetti, Sabrina. "Dreaming Circularity? Eastern European Women And Job Sharing In Paid Home Care." Journal Of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 11.4 (2013): 347-363. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. 26 Oct. 2016.

This Research Article by Sabrina Marchetti is about Eastern European women who work in homecare finding an ideal arrangement with the introduction of job share. This article is relevant because it shows the importance and adaptability of job share regardless of race or profession and the benefits it renders. This article would be a great source to prove how conducive job share can be to the participants lifestyles.

Nolan, Rebecca Rose. "Job Sharing." State Magazine 612 (2016): 40-47. Military & Government Collection. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.

This article by Rose Rebecca Nolan is a first hand account of a woman who finds the idea of job share interesting and more fitting to her lifestyle after the birth of her child. This particular article is significant because it provides arguments against job share by the workplace facilitators who view this this arrangement as unconventional and and somewhat difficult. This article is a great source of first hand accounts both for and against the job share arrangement.

Dixon-Krausse, Pamela Marie. "Integration Of Learning And Practice For Job Sharing Partnerships." Online Submission (2007):ERIC. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

This article by Dixon Krausse and Pamela Marie explores job sharing and its flexibility in the workplace and different ways in which to incorporate this arrangement. This article is critical because it not only lists the benefits of the benefits of job sharing but gives different models to adapt to job sharing. This is an excellent source to display different example on how to assimilate the idea of job sharing into a more conventional workplace.

MONCLOVA, HÉCTOR. "Job-Sharing Is Worth Exploring." Caribbean Business 41.3 (2013): 48. Small Business Reference Center. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

This article written by Hector Moncolva is an excellent descriptive source on how job share can positively impact the business sector and economy of Puerto Rico. This article is relevant because it displays the effect that job share can have on an economy and not just the participant or facilitator. This article is great source to show the benefits of job sharing in a more business and economic way.

Annotated bibliography: POSDCORB

Uzuegbu, C. P., and C. O. Nnadozie. "Henry Fayol's 14 Principles Of Management: Implications For Libraries And Information Centres." Journal Of Information Science Theory & Practice (Jistap) 3.2 (2015): 58-72. Business Source Ultimate. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

This article written by Uzuegbu and Nnadozie goes in depth on Henri Fayol’s 14 principles of management. This particular article is important because it explores ways to adapt these original and classical management principles while also displaying its shortcomings and benefits. This article would be an informative source for Fayol’s 14 principles of management in depth giving the readers a strong background on the classical management and planning principles.

Schimmoeller C, Lee. "Henri Fayol And Zero Tolerance Policies." Review Of International Comparative Management / Revista De Management Comparat International 13.1 (2012): 30-36. Business Source Ultimate. Web. 24 Oct. 2016.

This article by Lee Schimmoeller explores the zero tolerance policy and Henri Fayol's 14 administrative principles. This article is significant because it merges a classical view of administrative management with a more modern political view like the zero tolerance policy. This article will be a great source  to present how the classical view of administrative management is still relevant and can be assimilated with other management principles.

Newbold, Stephanie P., and Larry D. Terry. "THE PRESIDENT's COMMITTEE ON ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT: The Untold Story And The Federalist Connection." Administration & Society 38.5 (2006): 523-555. Professional Development Collection. Web. 26 Oct. 2016.

This article by Stephanie Newbold and Terry Larry analyzes the Brownlow project in detail. This article is extremely significant because it the Brownlow project is where POSDCORB and management and planning policies first appeared in a 1937 staff paper. This article would be a good source on the history of the Brownlow project and it's the importance in the management and the field of public administration today.

Kaufman, Herbert. "Administrative Management: Does Its Strong Executive Thesis Still Merit Our Attention?." Public Administration Review 67.6 (2007): 1041-1048. Political Science Complete. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.

This article by Herbert Kaufman focuses on improving the classical view of administrative management. This article is significant because it discusses administrative views in action more in depth giving more real life examples. This article can be used by relating the administrative views to modern day politics and managment.

Bello, Abdullahi Usman. "Using The Classical Grounded Theory Rather Than The Strauss And Corbin Approach In Accounting And Management Research." Proceedings Of The European Conference On E-Learning (2015): 41-47. Education Source. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.

This article by Abdullahi Usman Bello focuses on utilizing the classical approach on management to eliminate confusion in the management field. This article is important because it discusses the the confusion and ignorance that occurs when other management views are introduced in the field.  This article make a stronger case for using the classical approach more often.

POSDCORB article Evaluation

The initial article over POSDCORB is very unclear and confusing even. The information is very blurry and unorganized. The information sees to be copied and pasted from multiple sources and just thrown in there. There are hyperlinks everywhere but almost none of them work. The article is very biased, it does not mention many people outside of Luther Gulick in depth . The "elaborations" and "coining of the term" portions of the article did have a lot of useful information that could have been organized better. The article really needs to expand on Henri Fayol's fourteen principles of management. The article could also use some expansion on the "criticisms" and place in "public administration history as well" The biggest issue I see with this article is that it seems dated. The links are dated, the information is also dated.

Job Share Article Evaluation

This Wikipedia article over job share is quite short and not descriptive at all. I think this article could use a lot of sprucing up. There are almost no sources, but the few sources that do exist do have links that work. The article is neutral and impartial but there is barely any information. The definition and origin of job share should be expanded immensely. We need to incorporate new studies on job share and its benefits and over all objectives. We need to add a lot more information on the practice of job share in other countries as well. I believe this article needs a great deal of new information and sources to make it decent.