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User:Eb1002/Body odor

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Humans

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In humans, body odor serves as a means of chemosensory signal communication between members of the species. These signals are called pheromones and they can be transmitted through a variety of mediums. The most common way that human pheromones are transmitted is through bodily fluids. Human pheromones are contained in sweat, semen, vaginal secretions, breast milk, and urine.[1] The signals carried in these fluids serve a range of functions from reproductive signaling to infant socialization.[2] Each person produces a unique spread of pheromones that can be identified by others.[3] This differentiation allows the formation of sexual attraction and kinship ties to occur.[3][4]

Sebaceous and apocrine glands become active at puberty. Sebaceous glands line the human skin while apocrine glands are located around body hairs.[1] Compared to other primates, humans have extensive axillary hair and have many odor producing sources, in particular many apocrine glands.[5] In humans, the apocrine glands have the ability to secrete pheromones. These steroid compounds are produced within the peroxisomes of the apocrine glands by enzymes such as mevalonate kinase[6]. The production and excretion of these pheromone compounds are regulated by bacteria and environmental interactions.[1]

Pheromones are a factor seen in the mating selection and reproduction in humans. In women, the sense of olfaction of pheromones is strongest around the time of ovulation, significantly stronger than during other phases of the menstrual cycle and also stronger than the sense in males.[7] Pheromones can be used to deliver information about the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).[3] The MCH in humans is referred to as the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA).[8] Each type has a unique scent profile that can be utilized during the mating selection process. When selecting mates, women tend to be attracted to those that have different HLA-types than their own.[3][8] This is thought to increase the strength of the family unit and increase the chances of survival for potential offspring.[3]

Humans can olfactorily detect blood-related kin.[4] Mothers can identify by body odor their biological children, but not their stepchildren. Preadolescent children can olfactorily detect their full siblings, but not half-siblings or step-siblings, and this might explain incest avoidance and the Westermarck effect.[9] Babies can recognize their mothers by smell [10] while mothers , fathers, and other relatives can identify a baby by smell.[11] This connection between genetically similar family members is due to the habituation of familial pheromones. In the case of babies and mothers, this chemosensory information is primarily contained within breastmilk and the mother's sweat.[12] When compared to that of strangers, babies are observed to have stronger neural connections with their mothers[13]. This strengthened neurological connection allows for the biological development and socialization of the infant by their mother. Using these connections, the mother transmits olfactory signals to the infant which are then perceived and integrated[13].

In terms of biological functioning, olfactory signaling allows for functional breastfeeding to occur. In cases of effective latching, breastfed infants are able to locate their mother's nipples for feeding using the sensory information enclosed in their mother's body odor[10]. While no specific human breast pheromones have been identified, studies compare the communication to that of the rabbit mammary pheromone 2MB2.[14][15]The perception and integration of these signals is an evolutionary response that allows newborns to locate their source of nutrition. Signaling contains a level of precision that allows babies to differentiate their mother's breasts from that of other women[12]. Once the baby recognizes the familiar olfactory signal, the behavioral response of latching follows[12]. Over time the infant becomes habituated to their mother's breast pheromones which increases latch efficiency.[10]

Beyond a biological function, a mother's body odor plays a role in developing a baby's social capabilities. The ability of an infant to evaluate the properties of human faces stems from the olfactory cues given from their mother[2]. Frequent exposure to the pheromones exuded by their mother allows the connection between vision and smell to form in infants[13]. This type of connection is only found between mothers and babies and overtime it socializes the ability to recognize the features that distinguish human faces from inanimate objects[2].

The connection between olfactory and visual cues has also been observed outside of familial relationships. Evolutionarily, body odor has been used to communicate messages about potentially dangerous stimuli in the environment.[1] Body odor produced during particularly stressful situations can produce a cascade of reactions in the brain. Once the olfactory system is activated by a threatening stimuli, heightened activity in the amygdala and occipital cortex is triggered.[16][1] This chain reaction serves to help assess the nature of the threat and increase chance of survival.


Alterations

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Body odor may be reduced or prevented or even aggravated by using deodorants, antiperspirants, disinfectants, underarm liners, triclosan, special soaps or foams with antiseptic plant extracts such as ribwort and liquorice, chlorophyllin ointments and sprays topically, and chlorophyllin supplements internally. Although body odor is commonly associated with hygiene practices, its presentation can be affected by changes in diet as well as the other factors.[17] Skin spectrophotometry analysis found that males who consumed more fruits and vegetables were significantly associated with more pleasant smelling sweat, which was described as "floral, fruity, sweet and medicinal qualities".[18]

  1. ^ a b c d e Lundström, Johan N.; Olsson, Mats J. (2010). "Functional Neuronal Processing of Human Body Odors". Vitamins and hormones. 83: 1–23. doi:10.1016/S0083-6729(10)83001-8. ISSN 0083-6729. PMC 3593650. PMID 20831940.
  2. ^ a b c Damon, Fabrice; Mezrai, Nawel; Magnier, Logan; Leleu, Arnaud; Durand, Karine; Schaal, Benoist (2021-10-05). "Olfaction in the Multisensory Processing of Faces: A Narrative Review of the Influence of Human Body Odors". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 750944. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.750944. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8523678. PMID 34675855.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  3. ^ a b c d e Grammer, Karl; Fink, Bernhard; Neave, Nick (2005-02-01). "Human pheromones and sexual attraction". European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. 118 (2): 135–142. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2004.08.010. ISSN 0301-2115.
  4. ^ a b Porter, Richard H.; Cernoch, Jennifer M.; Balogh, Rene D. (March 1985). "Odor signatures and kin recognition". Physiology & Behavior. 34 (3): 445–448. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(85)90210-0. PMID 4011726. S2CID 42316168.
  5. ^ Cite error: The named reference AEP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ Rothardt, G.; Beier, K. (2001-08-01). "Peroxisomes in the apocrine sweat glands of the human axilla and their putative role in pheromone production". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences CMLS. 58 (9): 1344–1349. doi:10.1007/PL00000946. ISSN 1420-9071.
  7. ^ Navarrete-Palacios, Evelia; Hudson, Robyn; Reyes-Guerrero, Gloria; Guevara-Guzmán, Rosalinda (July 2003). "Lower olfactory threshold during the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle". Biological Psychology. 63 (3): 269–279. doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(03)00076-0. PMID 12853171. S2CID 46065468.
  8. ^ a b Kromer, J.; Hummel, T.; Pietrowski, D.; Giani, A. S.; Sauter, J.; Ehninger, G.; Schmidt, A. H.; Croy, I. (2016-08-31). "Influence of HLA on human partnership and sexual satisfaction". Scientific Reports. 6: 32550. doi:10.1038/srep32550. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5006172. PMID 27578547.
  9. ^ Weisfeld, Glenn E; Czilli, Tiffany; Phillips, Krista A; Gall, James A; Lichtman, Cary M (July 2003). "Possible olfaction-based mechanisms in human kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 85 (3): 279–295. doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(03)00061-4. PMID 12810039.
  10. ^ a b c Varendi, H.; Porter, R. H.; Winberg, J. (1994-10-08). "Does the newborn baby find the nipple by smell?". The Lancet. 344 (8928): 989–990. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(94)91645-4. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 7934434.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Oxford2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ a b c Makin, Jennifer W.; Porter, Richard H. (1989-08). "Attractiveness of Lactating Females' Breast Odors to Neonates". Child Development. 60 (4): 803. doi:10.2307/1131020. ISSN 0009-3920. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ a b c Endevelt-Shapira, Yaara; Djalovski, Amir; Dumas, Guillaume; Feldman, Ruth (2021-12-10). "Maternal chemosignals enhance infant-adult brain-to-brain synchrony". Science Advances. 7 (50): eabg6867. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg6867. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 8664266. PMID 34890230.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  14. ^ Schaal, Benoist (2014), Mucignat-Caretta, Carla (ed.), "Pheromones for Newborns", Neurobiology of Chemical Communication, Frontiers in Neuroscience, Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-1-4665-5341-5, PMID 24830031, retrieved 2022-11-27
  15. ^ "Pheromone From Mother's Milk May Rapidly Promote Learning In Newborn Mammals". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
  16. ^ Mujica-Parodi, Lilianne R.; Strey, Helmut H.; Frederick, Blaise; Savoy, Robert; Cox, David; Botanov, Yevgeny; Tolkunov, Denis; Rubin, Denis; Weber, Jochen (2009-07-29). "Chemosensory Cues to Conspecific Emotional Stress Activate Amygdala in Humans". PLoS ONE. 4 (7): e6415. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006415. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2713432. PMID 19641623.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  17. ^ "Learn How to Fight Body Odor". Retrieved 2007-07-05.
  18. ^ Zuniga, Andrea; Stevenson, Richard J.; Mahmut, Mehmut K.; Stephen, Ian D. (2017-01-01). "Diet quality and the attractiveness of male body odor". Evolution and Human Behavior. 38 (1): 136–143. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.08.002. ISSN 1090-5138.
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