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Article: Insects as food

For the cultural and biological process of eating insects, see Entomophagy in humans.

Lead

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Whole, fried edible insects as street food in Germany
Whole, steamed silkworm pupae as street food in South Korea (beondegi)
Pancakes made from insect powder, served with strawberries and skyr
Number of edible insect species per country

Insects as food or edible insects are insect species used for human consumption. It is estimated that more than 2 billion people eat insects daily.[1] More than 2,000 insects species worldwide are considered edible.[2] However, a much smaller number[3] is discussed for industrialized mass production[4] and partly regionally authorized for use in food. Insects are commonly consumed whole or pulverized for use in dishes and processed food products such as burger patties, pasta, or snacks.

Edible insects

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Frequently consumed insect species

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Consumption of 2096 different insect species by humans have been documented (2111 if spiders are included).[2] This tally includes 696 species of beetles, 362 butterflies and moths (typically consumed as caterpillars), 321 bees, wasps, and ants, 278 grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, 237 cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects, and true bugs, 239 grasshoppers, 61 dragonflies, 59 termites and cockroaches, and 37 flies.[2]

The table below ranks insect order by percentage of overall insect species consumed by humans and presents each insect order's percentage of known insect species.[2][5][6] With the exceptions of orders Orthoptera and Diptera, there is close alignment between species diversity and consumption, suggesting that humans tend to eat those insects that are most available.

Human insect consumption by taxonomic order
Insect order Common name Percentage of insect species consumed by humans (%) [2] Percentage of total insect species (%) [5]
Coleoptera Beetles 33 38
Lepidoptera Butterflies, moths 17 16
Hymenoptera Bees, wasps, ants 15 12
Orthoptera Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets 13 2
Hemiptera Cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects, true bugs 11 10
Odonata Dragonflies 3 1
Blattodea Termites, cockroaches 3 1
Diptera Flies 2 15
Others - 2 6

Geography of Insect Consumption

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Insect species consumption varies by region due to differences in environment, ecosystems, and climate.[7][8] The number of insect species consumed by country is highest in equatorial and sub-tropical regions, a reflection of greater insect abundance and biodiversity observed at lower latitudes and their year-round availability.[8][9][10]

For a list of edible insects consumed locally see: List of edible insects by country.

Edible insects for industrialized mass production

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Nutritional profile

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Freeze-dried mealworms and buffalo worms (lesser mealworm)

Insects are nutrient-efficient compared to other meat sources.[citation needed] Some insects (e.g. crickets, mealworms) are a source of complete protein and provide similar essential amino acid levels as soybeans, though less than casein.[11][12] They have dietary fiber, essential minerals, vitamins such as B12,[13] riboflavin and vitamin A, and include mostly unsaturated fat.[14][15]

Locusts contain between 8 and 20 milligrams of iron for every 100 grams of raw locust, whereas beef contains roughly 6 milligrams of iron in the same amount of meat.[citation needed] Crickets are also very efficient in terms of nutrients. For every 100 grams of substance crickets contain 12.9 grams of protein, 121 calories, and 5.5 grams of fat. Beef contains more protein, containing 23.5 grams in 100 grams of substance, but also has roughly triple the calories and four times the amount of fat as crickets do in 100 grams.[citation needed]

Nutritional value
per 100 g		 Mealworms
(Tenebrio molitor)		 Buffalo worms
(Alphitobius diaperinus)		 House crickets
(Acheta domesticus)		 Migratory locust
(Locusta migratoria)
Energy 550 kcal / 2303 kJ 484 kcal / 2027 kJ 458 kcal / 1918 kJ 559 kcal / 2341 kJ
Fat
Of which saturated fatty acids		 37,2 g
9 g		 24,7 g
8 g		 18,5 g
7 g		 38,1 g
13,1 g
Carbohydrates
Of which sugars		 5,4 g
0 g		 6,7 g
0 g		 0 g
0 g		 1,1 g
0 g
Protein 45,1 g 56,2 g 69,1 g 48,2 g
Salt 0,37 g 0,38 g 1,03 g 0,43 g

Organoleptic characteristics

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Chapulines, a popular edible grasshoper of Mexico.

The organoleptic characteristics of edible insects vary between species and are influenced by environment.[16] For instance, aquatic edible insects such as water boatmen (family Corixidae) and dragonfly larvae have a fish flavor, while diving beetles taste like clams.[16][17][18] Environment is not always a predictor of flavor, as terrestrial edible insects may also exhibit fish-like flavors (e.g. crickets, grasshoppers).[17][18] Over 400 volatile compounds responsible for the aroma and flavor of edible insects have been identified.[19] Pheromone chemicals contribute to pungent aromas and flavors in some species and the presence of organic acids (like formic acid in ants) makes some species taste sour.[20] Organoleptic characteristics are dependent on the development stage of the insect (egg, larva, pupa, nymph, or adult) and may change significantly as an insect matures.[16] For example, texture can change from soft to crunchy as an insect develops from larva to adult due to increasing exoskeletal chitin.[16] Cooking method is considered the strongest influence on the final flavor of edible insects.[16][19] Wet-cooking methods such as scalding or steaming, remove pheromones and odor compounds, resulting in a milder flavor, while dry-cooking methods such as frying and roasting, introduce more complex flavors.[16][19][21]

The table below provides common flavor descriptors for a selection of edible insects.[17][20] Flavors will vary with preparation method (e.g. raw, dried, fried, etc.). Insect development stage is provided when possible.

Flavor descriptors of a selection of edible insects [17][20][16]
Insect Scientific name Development stage Flavor
Agave worm (white) Aegiale hesperiaris [22] Larvae Cracklings
Agave worm (red) Comadia redtenbacheri [23] Larvae Spicy
Ants Family Formicidae Adult Sweet, nutty
Carpenter ant Camponotus spp. Adult Charred lemon
Wood ant Formica spp. Adult Kaffir lime
Black witch moth Ascalapha odorata Larvae Herring
Cockroach Order Blattodea - Mushroom
Cricket Superfamily Grylloidea Adult Fish
Corn earworm Helicoverpa zea Larvae Sweet corn
Dragonfly Infraorder Anisoptera Larvae Fish
Grasshopper Suborder Caelifera Adult Fish
Honey bee Apis spp. Brood Butter, milk, herbal, vegetal, meaty, mushroom
Mealworm Tenebrio molitor - Nutty (larvae); whole wheat bread (adult)
Mealybug Family Pseudococcidae - Fried potato
Stinkbug Family Pentatomidae Adult Apple
Termite Infraorder Isoptera Adult Nutty
Treehopper Family Membracidae - Avacado, zucchini
Wasp Suborder Apocrita - Pine nut
Water boatmen Family Corixidae - Caviar (egg); fish, shrimp (adult)

Farming, production, and processing

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Insect food products

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Food Safety

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Regulation and Authorisation

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EU

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Switzerland

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UK

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USA and Canada

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Challenges and safety concerns (ORIGINAL)

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There are some potential challenges caused by production and safety concerns.

Mass production in the insect industry is a concern due to a lack of technology and funds to efficiently harvest and produce insects. The machinery would have to house proper enclosure for each life cycle of the insect as well as the temperature control as that is key for insect development.[24]

The industry also has to consider the shelf life of insects in comparison to animal products as that can have some food safety concerns. Insects have the capability of accumulating potential hazards, such as contaminants, pathogens, the concentration of heavy metals, allergens, and pesticides etc.[25]

The table below combined the data from two studies[25][26] published in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety and summarized the potential hazards of the top five insect species consumed by humans.

Insect order Common name Hazard category Potential hazard
Coleoptera Beetle Chemical Hormones
Cyanogentic substances
Heavy metal contamination
Lepidoptera Silkworm Allergic
Chemical Thiaminase
Honeycomb moth Microbial High bacterial count
Chemical Cyanogentic substances
Hymenoptera Ant Chemical Antinutritional factors (tannin, phytate)
Orthoptera House cricket Microbial High bacterial count
Hemiptera Parasitical Chagas disease
Diptera Black soldier fly Parasitical Myiasis

Hazards in insects that are shown above can be controlled by various ways. Allergic hazards can be labelled on the package to avoid consumption by allergy-susceptible consumers. Selective farming can be used to minimize chemical hazards, whereas microbial and parasitical hazards can be controlled by cooking processes.[26]

Challenges and safety concerns (REVISING)

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There are challenges and potential safety concerns associated with the production, processing, and consumption of insects as food.[27]

Diagram of risk factors associated with the consumption of edible insects.[28]

Like other foods, the consumption of insects can present health risks stemming from biological, toxicological, and allergenic hazards.[27][29] Food safety hazards associated with edible insects are summarized in the diagram below.[28] Insect species, growth stage, and the methods of production and processing are key determinants of the likelihood for food safety hazards in edible insects.[27][30] In general, insects harvested from the wild pose a greater risk than farmed insects, and insects consumed raw pose a greater risk than insects that are cooked before consumption.[27] Feed substrate and growing conditions are the main factors influencing the microbiological and chemical hazards of farmed insects.[30][31]

The table below combines data from two studies summarizing the potential hazards of the top five insect orders consumed by humans.[25][26]

Insect order Common name Hazard category Potential hazard
Coleoptera Beetle Chemical Hormones
Cyanogentic substances
Heavy metal contamination
Lepidoptera Silkworm Allergic
Chemical Thiaminase
Honeycomb moth Microbial High bacterial count
Chemical Cyanogentic substances
Hymenoptera Ant Chemical Antinutritional factors (tannin, phytate)
Orthoptera House cricket Microbial High bacterial count
Hemiptera Parasitical Chagas disease
Diptera Black soldier fly Parasitical Myiasis

The hazards identified in the above table can be controlled in various ways. Allergens can be labelled on the package to avoid consumption by allergy-susceptible consumers. Selective farming can be used to minimize chemical hazards, whereas microbial and parasitical hazards can be controlled by cooking processes.[26]

Challenges (Reorganizing headings, revising, and adding content)

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There are challenges associated with the production, processing, and consumption of insects as food.[32]

Production

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Mass production in the insect industry is a concern due to a lack of technology and funds to efficiently harvest and produce insects. The machinery would have to house proper enclosure for each life cycle of the insect as well as the temperature control as that is key for insect development.[33]

Processing

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The availability of wild-harvested insects can be seasonally dependent.[34] This presents a challenge, as many wild-harvested insects have a short shelf life, sometimes of only a day or two.[35] Identifying methods of processing and storing insects so that they may be enjoyed throughout the year will maximize the benefits of wild-sourced edible insects.

Awareness

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See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ Pap, Fundacja (2018-03-05). "Expert: More than 2 billion people worldwide eat insects every day". Science in Poland. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
  2. ^ a b c d e Jongema, Yde (2017-04-01). "List of edible insects of the world (April 1, 2017)". Wageningen University & Research. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference rumbos-anthassiou-2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference van-Huis-2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b Stork, Nigel E. (2018-01-07). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?". Annual Review of Entomology. 63 (1): 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. ISSN 0066-4170.
  6. ^ Huis, Arnold van (2013). Edible insects : future prospects for food and feed security. Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-107596-8. OCLC 868923724.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. ^ Harris, Marvin (1998). Good to eat : riddles of food and culture. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN 1-57766-015-3. OCLC 43638785.
  8. ^ a b Lesnik, Julie J. (2017). "Not just a fallback food: global patterns of insect consumption related to geography, not agriculture". American Journal of Human Biology: e22976. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22976. ISSN 1042-0533.
  9. ^ Cruz y Celis Peniche, Patricio (January 2022). "Drivers of insect consumption across human populations". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 31 (1): 45–59. doi:10.1002/evan.21926. ISSN 1060-1538.
  10. ^ Kishimoto-Yamada, Keiko; Itioka, Takao (October 2015). "How much have we learned about seasonality in tropical insect abundance since Wolda (1988)?: Seasonality in tropical insect abundance". Entomological Science. 18 (4): 407–419. doi:10.1111/ens.12134.
  11. ^ Yi, Liya; Lakemond, Catriona M. M.; Sagis, Leonard M. C.; Eisner-Schadler, Verena; van Huis, Arnold; van Boekel, Martinus A. J. S. (2013-12-15). "Extraction and characterisation of protein fractions from five insect species". Food Chemistry. 141 (4): 3341–3348. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.115. ISSN 0308-8146. PMID 23993491.
  12. ^ Van Huis, Arnold (2015). "Edible insects contributing to food security?". Agriculture & Food Security. 4 (20). doi:10.1186/s40066-015-0041-5.
  13. ^ Schmidt, Anatol; Call, Lisa; Macheiner, Lukas; Mayer, Helmut K. (2018). "Determination of vitamin B12 in four edible insect species by immunoaffinity and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography". Food Chemistry. 281: 124–129. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.12.039. PMID 30658738. S2CID 58651702.
  14. ^ https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/10/eating-bugs-food_n_4726371.html?slideshow=true Here's Why You Should Start Eating (More) Bugs
  15. ^ FAO: Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Online: PDF Archived 2019-02-04 at the Wayback Machine.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Kouřimská, Lenka; Adámková, Anna (2016-10-01). "Nutritional and sensory quality of edible insects". NFS Journal. 4: 22–26. doi:10.1016/j.nfs.2016.07.001. ISSN 2352-3646.
  17. ^ a b c d Ramos-Elorduy, Julieta (1998). Creepy crawly cuisine : the gourmet guide to edible insects. Peter Menzel, Nancy Esteban. Rochester, VT. ISBN 0-89281-747-X. OCLC 37966440.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  18. ^ a b "Insects as Food | Nebraska Extension in Lancaster County". lancaster.unl.edu. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
  19. ^ a b c Perez-Santaescolastica, Cristina; De Winne, Ann; Devaere, Jolien; Fraeye, Ilse (2022). "The flavour of edible insects: A comprehensive review on volatile compounds and their analytical assessment". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 127: 352–367. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2022.07.011.
  20. ^ a b c Mishyna, Maryia; Chen, Jianshe; Benjamin, Ofir (2020-01-01). "Sensory attributes of edible insects and insect-based foods – Future outlooks for enhancing consumer appeal". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 95: 141–148. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2019.11.016. ISSN 0924-2244.
  21. ^ Żołnierczyk, Anna K.; Szumny, Antoni (2021). "Sensory and Chemical Characteristic of Two Insect Species: Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio Larvae Affected by Roasting Processes". Molecules. 26 (9): 2697. doi:10.3390/molecules26092697. ISSN 1420-3049. PMC 8124484. PMID 34064526.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  22. ^ Molina-Vega, Aracely; Hernández-Domínguez, Edna María; Villa-García, Matilde; Álvarez-Cervantes, Jorge (2021). "Comadia redtenbacheri (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) and Aegiale hesperiaris (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), two important edible insects of Agave salmiana (Asparagales: Asparagaceae): a review". International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 41 (3): 1977–1988. doi:10.1007/s42690-020-00396-1. ISSN 1742-7592.
  23. ^ Kawahara, Akito Y.; Martinez, Jose I.; Plotkin, David; Markee, Amanda; Butterwort, Violet; Couch, Christian D.; Toussaint, Emmanuel F. A. (2023-03-08). "Mezcal worm in a bottle: DNA evidence suggests a single moth species". PeerJ. 11: e14948. doi:10.7717/peerj.14948. ISSN 2167-8359.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  24. ^ Rumpold, B.A., & Schlüter O.K. (2013) Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 17, 1–11.
  25. ^ a b c van der Spiegel, M.; Noordam, M.y.; van der Fels-Klerx, H.j. (2013-11-01). "Safety of Novel Protein Sources (Insects, Microalgae, Seaweed, Duckweed, and Rapeseed) and Legislative Aspects for Their Application in Food and Feed Production". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 12 (6): 662–678. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12032. PMID 33412718.
  26. ^ a b c d Belluco, Simone; Losasso, Carmen; Maggioletti, Michela; Alonzi, Cristiana C.; Paoletti, Maurizio G.; Ricci, Antonia (2013-05-01). "Edible Insects in a Food Safety and Nutritional Perspective: A Critical Review". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 12 (3): 296–313. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12014.
  27. ^ a b c d Murefu, T. R.; Macheka, L.; Musundire, R.; Manditsera, F. A. (2019-07-01). "Safety of wild harvested and reared edible insects: A review". Food Control. 101: 209–224. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.03.003. ISSN 0956-7135.
  28. ^ a b Giampieri, Francesca; Alvarez‐Suarez, José M.; Machì, Michele; Cianciosi, Danila; Navarro‐Hortal, Maria D.; Battino, Maurizio (2022). "Edible insects: A novel nutritious, functional, and safe food alternative". Food Frontiers. 3 (3): 358–365. doi:10.1002/fft2.167. ISSN 2643-8429.
  29. ^ Imathiu, Samuel (2020). "Benefits and food safety concerns associated with consumption of edible insects". NFS Journal. 18: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.nfs.2019.11.002.
  30. ^ a b van der Fels-Klerx, H. J.; Camenzuli, L.; Belluco, S.; Meijer, N.; Ricci, A. (2018). "Food Safety Issues Related to Uses of Insects for Feeds and Foods: Food safety of insects for feed/food…". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 17 (5): 1172–1183. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12385.
  31. ^ Schlüter, Oliver; Rumpold, Birgit; Holzhauser, Thomas; Roth, Angelika; Vogel, Rudi F.; Quasigroch, Walter; Vogel, Stephanie; Heinz, Volker; Jäger, Henry; Bandick, Nils; Kulling, Sabine; Knorr, Dietrich; Steinberg, Pablo; Engel, Karl-Heinz (2017). "Safety aspects of the production of foods and food ingredients from insects". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 61 (6): 1600520. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201600520.
  32. ^ Huis, Arnold (2022). "Edible insects: Challenges and prospects". Entomological Research. 52 (4): 161–177. doi:10.1111/1748-5967.12582. ISSN 1738-2297.
  33. ^ Rumpold, B.A., & Schlüter O.K. (2013) Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 17, 1–11.
  34. ^ Tagawa, Kazuki; Hosoya, Tadatsugu; Hyakumura, Kimihiko; Suzuki, Dai; Yoshizawa, Satoshi; Praxaysombath, Bounthob (2022-04-18). "The effects of season, geography, and urbanization on the diversity of edible insects at food markets in Laos". PLOS ONE. 17 (4): e0267307. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267307. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 9015116. PMID 35436314.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  35. ^ Imathiu, Samuel (2020-03-01). "Benefits and food safety concerns associated with consumption of edible insects". NFS Journal. 18: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.nfs.2019.11.002. ISSN 2352-3646.
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