User:ENG2304/Lesser Known Early American Authors

Pre-Independence Authors

Philip Freneau was born on January 2, 1752 in New York. Considered the “Poet of the American Revolution,” he was educated at Princeton University, where his roommate was James Madison. He originally planned on being a minister, but became so interested in political debates at Princeton that he decided to become a writer. After graduating, he wrote several anti-British satires. In 1776, he traveled to the West Indies where he spent two years writing and studying navigation. When he returned to New Jersey in 1778, he joined the militia and became the captain of a ship. By 1790, he had published two collections of poetry, then established a newspaper in Philadelphia, the National Gazette. His friends Thomas Jefferson and James Madison had encouraged him to do so, and this paper later helped promote Jefferson’s principles. Early in the 1800s, Freneau retired, but continued to write essays and poetry. Though many of his poems are politically satirical, much of his poetry is about nature; his works are said to display Romanticism. He died in New Jersey on December 18, 1832, where he is said to have frozen to death from a blizzard.

Hugh Henry Brackenridge was an American writer, lawyer and judge born in Kintyre, Scotland in 1748, and immigrated to York County, Pennsylvania at the age of 5. At age 20 Brackenridge started a higher education at the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University. Here he met James Madison, leading to his admission into the American Whig Society. Upon graduation day in 1771, he recited a poem titled “The Rising Glory of America”, which he had wrote with his classmate Phillip Freneau, another famed author of America’s early years. He remained at the University another year to study divinity, which when it came time for the Revolution served him well as he took the role of chaplain in General Washington’s army. His first publication,The United States Magazine, compiled many remarks on politics and literature, but lasted a mere year. In 1786 he once again started a publication, this time the Pittsburgh Gazette, which still lives on today as the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. During his final year perhaps his most renowned work was finished, Modern Chivalry, considered the first important work regarding the American frontier. Brackenridge died June 25, 1816 in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Penina Moïse (April 23, 1797-September 13, 1880) was an American Jewish poet, author, and educator. Born and raised in Charleston, South Carolina, she was the sixth of Abraham and Sarah Moïse’s nine children. The Moïse family was of French descent and initially lived in the Caribbean before moving to the United States. There, Abraham Moïse made a successful living as a merchant until he passed away when Penina was twelve years old. His death left the family in relative poverty, and Penina was forced to give up her education. However, she continued reading and writing on her own, supported by Isaac Harby, a prominent member of the local Jewish community. Harby assisted in shaping both her intellect and her deep faith. Under his tutelage, Penina began writing hymns and poetry with Jewish themes. A Charleston newspaper published her first poem in 1819, and her works subsequently appeared in a number of local and national publications, including Godey’s Lady Book and Occident and American Jewish Spectator. Her critically acclaimed poetry collection, Fancy’s Sketchbook, became the first such work by an American Jewish woman when it was published in 1833. Its poems addressed significant political and Jewish issues, which were considered highly unusual topics to be covered by a woman in her day. During this time, Penina also worked as a teacher at Beth Elohim Sunday school to make ends meet, though she and her family remained poor throughout her lifetime. The Civil War forced her family to relocate to Sumter, South Carolina, but she returned to her teaching post upon the war’s end, where she was remembered for her unfailing warmth and positivity. A sufferer from poor vision, Penina eventually went blind; she reportedly taught literary works from memory. Penina was never married and died in 1880, whereupon she was interred in Charleston’s Jewish cemetery.

Johnathan Edwards is remembered as being a significant theologian during the First Great Awakening. However, he is also the author of significant literary works that should be included in the literary canon. Edwards was born on the fifth of October in 1703 and died on the twenty second of March in 1758 at the age of fifty-four. Edwards attended Yale College in 1716 where he was later greatly influenced by John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Edwards married Sarah Pierpont in 1727 which was the same year he was ordained minister at Northampton. After moving to Stockbridge, Massachusetts, he wrote The Freedom of the Will in 1754. Edwards was later elected as president of Princeton University (known then as the College of New Jersey) in early 1758. Johnathan Edwards was considered the “most eminent American philosopher-theologian of his time”.

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Anne Hutchinson was a New England religious leader and midwife born England on July 20, 1591 as Anne Marbury. She was a daughter of a introverted clergyman as Hutchinson grew up in an atmosphere of learning. She spent most of her childhood at home, reading her father's theology and religion books. In 1612, she married a merchant named William Hutchinson and together they traveled to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. She attached herself to the preaching and teachings of John Cotton. Anne Hutchinson was more well known as a lecturer other than an author as she spent her time meeting with other Boston women to discuss sermons. She spoke of grace being the way to salvation without works and because it seemed to attack the rigid moral and legal codes of Puritans, her meetings became controversial. Her followers were beginning to be called "Antinomians" meaning belief that Christians are not bound by moral law, and it was meant to be derogatory. She refused to recant as she spoke scripture and had many speeches to the community, so she was excommunicated from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. After she was excommunicated, her and her husband within a group of people founded present-day Rhode Island in 1638. Anne Hutchinson challenged the role of women in Puritan society. She was extremely bold and strong and she broke the mold of the average woman during her time. Anne's family was attacked by a group of Indians during a battle between the Mohegans and the Narragansetts. The Mohegans raided the Hutchinson house and killed Anne and thirteen members of her family in 1643.

Native American Authors

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Chief Black Hawk was a warrior and leader of the Sauk Tribe but he was not actually a “chief,” but he held a high status among his people due to the successful war parties he lead as a young man. Before Black Hawk had gained fame within the dominant society, he and his followers contested the disposition of 50 million acres of territory that had supposedly been granted to the United States by tribal spokesmen in the Treaty of St. Louis in 1804. His decision to defy the government and attempt to reoccupy tribal lands along the Rock River in Illinois resulted in the brief but tragic Black Hawk War of 1832. After the fighting was over, Black Hawk and the remnants of his band were captured and held outside of St. Louis in Jefferson Barracks. His capture provided a political opportunity for Andrew Jackson's government. Black Hawk, along with a few other Native Americans, were put on display for easterners to gawk at. Ironically, the fame he achieved from this provided him a voice, allowing his stories and eponyms to live on in history. Black Hawk's story was published in 1833 as Life of Black Hawk. Black Hawk's focus upon his right to fight this war as well as his honor as a warrior serves to reinvigorate a status that had been exoticized, diminutized, and feminized in eastern and western newspapers. The former contributes to this writer’s scarcity among the literary canon, yet as a textual representation of both man and character, the autobiography does important cultural work within a young nation struggling morally with the "Indian problem." The nineteenth-century audience's consumption of the Black Hawk portrayed in the book reveals its cultural importance to the construction of the nation. To the end of his life, he blamed Keokuk for his and his people’s fate. On October 3, 1838, Black Hawk died at his home on the Des Moines River in Iowa.

Charles Eastman was born on February 19, 1858 on the Santee Dakota reservation near the Redwood Falls in Minnesota. His name at birth was Hakadah, meaning “pitiful last”. He was named this because his mother, who had given birth four times before, died during birthing Eastman. He later changed his name to Ohiye S’a, meaning “always wins”. During the Dakota War of 1862, Eastman was separated from his family, and believed them to be dead until he was reunited with them 15 years later. His father converted to Christianity and convinced Eastman to change his name again to Charles. He and his brother were encouraged by their father to attend European-American style schools. They attended mission and prep schools, after which Charles attended Beloit College and Knox College. In 1887 he graduated from Dartmouth College, and continued his education at Boston University, becoming one of the first Native Americans to become a certified European-Style doctor. After being forced out of several positions as a doctor, and failing at a private medical practice, Charles was encouraged by his wife to write stories of his childhood. His first two poems were published in St. Nicholas Magazine. He went on to publish several great works, and is considered the first American gothic author to write gothic tales from a Native American standpoint. Eastman was more than just an author however. He was asked by the YMCA to start an Indian Scouts program, leading to a connection that allowed him to take part in the creation of the Boy Scouts of America. He then pursued a career has a national and international spokesperson. Eastman’s speeches were focused mainly on living in peace and harmony with nature. Charles died on January 8th, 1939 in Detroit at age eighty of a heart attack.

William Apess was born on Janurary 31st, 1798 in Colrain, Massachusetts. Apess’s father was part Pequot Indian and Anglo-American and his mother was part Pequot Indian and probably part African-American. William had two brothers and two sisters. When he was three his parents split up leaving him and his four siblings with their grandparents. William’s grandparents were very abusive towards him and his siblings. They ended up being bound out to white families when William was four or five years old. Apess was strong willed and did not always behave. This resulted in him being transferred to several different masters. During his time with the Williamses, a wealthy New London Congregational family, William converted to Methodism. He converted in March of 1813 at the age of fifteen. After being banned by his master to attend any more Methodist revivals he ran away and enlisted in the army during the War of 1812. Apess returned to Connecticut in 1817 where he reunited with Pequot relatives. During this time he became a lay preacher. His father and the local Methodist circuit rider opposed his preaching. The Methodist circuit rider even forbade him to preach. Apess married Mary Wood in 1821 then in 1829 he moved his family to Providence, Rhode Island where he became a regularly ordained in 1829 as a minister by the Methodist Society. Apess’s first book, A Son of the Forest (1829) is the first published autobiography written by an Indian. His book was released during controversy over the Indian Removal Act (1830). His autobiography is a witness to how Indian people were treated and to how they adapted to what white people saw as being civilized. Apess has an interesting viewpoint of his experiences because he was primarily raised by whites. He became terrified of his own people because the whites that raised him told him stereotypical stories of Indian cruelty. He was never told how cruelly whites treated Indians though. Apees published another brief history of his life titled, The Experiences of Five Christian Indians of the Pequot Tribe (1833). This book contains an essay titled “An Indian’s Looking-Glass for the White Man.” In this essay Apess discusses whites’ savage treatment of non-whites with them being Christians. He also blames whites for Indians having alcoholism, which destroyed many Indian families. In all of his works Apess focuses on the equality of whites and people of different races. The last two books he wrote, Indian Nullification of the Unconstitutional Laws of Massachusetts, Relative to the Marshpee Tribe (1835) and Eulogy on King Philip (1836). He wrote these books out of the struggle and commitment for Indian rights. William Apess is significant because his books helped in the struggle for Indian rights. He brought to light how Indians were being treated and the impact it was having on them. . The most well-known works of Tillman’s include her two novellas Beryl Weston’s Ambition: The Story of An Afro-American Girl’s Life (1893) and Clancy Street (1898). Unfortunately, it is still unknown when exactly Tillman died; however, her last known publications appear in 1922. Tillman's main focus with her writing was to encourage and support young women of her race and will be remembered well for doing so.

Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (September 24, 1825 – February 22, 1911) was born in Baltimore, Maryland to free parents, but in 1828 at the age of three, she was an orphan placed in the care of her aunt and uncle. She attended Academy for Negro Youth, a school run by her uncle, Rev. William Watkins, where she was encouraged to embrace her talents as a young poet. In 1845, her first collection of poetry was published, called Forest Leaves, but unfortunately was lost. Harper moved to Ohio for work, teaching as a seamstress at Union Seminary, run by John Brown, another abolitionist. Harper published another collection of poems titled, Poems of Miscellaneous Subjects, featuring some of her more famous works such as, "Bury Me in a Free Land." At this time, Harper also became a highly demanded traveling abolitionist speaker. In 1859, Harper made history by being the first African American female to have a short story published. The title of her work was called, “Two Offers.” A year later, at age thirty-five, Harper married Fenton Harper and retired her public life to live in Ohio with her growing family. Two years later, in 1862, she gave birth to her first and only daughter, Mary Harper. In 1864, her husband died, and Harper came back to her former life as an abolitionist speaker to support her family of four. She also began writing poetry again like Moses: A Story of the Nile (1869) and Sketches of Southern Life (1872), where she expressed her views on the Reconstruction Era. Harper published her most famous work, a novel, titled Iola Leroy in 1892. It was received well by the public, expressing her views on women’s role in society, especially women’s suffrage. In 1896 she cofounded National Association of Colored Women with Ida Wells-Barnett and Harriet Tubman, where they advocated for the rights of African American women. Harper died of heart failure in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on February 22, 1911.

Emma Dunham Kelley Hawkins was an early American author who was born in 1864 and died on October 22, 1938. Very little of her life is recorded, however she lived in the Cape Cod region of Massachusetts, married Benjamin Arnon Hawkins and had two children, Gala Elizabeth Hawkins and Megda Dunham Hawkins. Hawkins wrote two famous novels “Megda” and “Four Girls at a College City.” Until recently, she was accepted into the early canon of African American feminist writers. Hawkins was accepted as an African American author because of a signed photograph included in her first novel Megda that’s shadowy finish made her look African American. It was not until recently (2005) that census records of her life identified her as white. She should not be included in the literary canon because she isn’t an African American author, and because of this her books should not be studied along with the ideals and values of African American society for her time period.

Latino/a American Authors

Maria Ruiz de Burton (1832-1895) was a female Mexican-American author, as well as the first one to write in English. She married Henry Burton, the captain of the army that invaded her hometown of La Paz, Baja California during the Mexican War. Marriage proved to be difficult because Maria was Catholic and Henry was Protestant; both individuals refused on converting either's religion. This author was important in early literature because she exposed the inequalities Latinos and Latinas faced in American society, even though they were granted the same rights as white citizens. Because she was able to read and write fluently in English and Spanish, the reach of her literature was far. As she traveled the United States with her husband, Maria was able to experience the effects of the American Civil War and observe the nature of the social structure in the 19th century.

Asian American Authors

Sui Sin Far (Edith Maud Eaton)- Edith Maud Eaton was born in England in 1865 to Edward Eaton, a struggling painter, and Grace Trefusius, a Chinese woman raised in England by adoptive parents. Edith Maud Eaton was the second oldest of fourteen children, and due to her father’s struggling career, the family moved frequently. Edith Maud Eaton received her education in British and Canadian schools and only spoke English. She could have easily passed as Caucasian; however, she instead emphasized her Chinese heritage and it became the focus of her writing career. In a time of severe social and political discrimination against Chinese immigrants, Edith Maud Eaton adopted the name Sui Sin Far, and began to write short stories and articles about Chinese people and Chinese culture. She was largely successful and her short stories and articles were published in numerous publications. Sui Sin Far was one of the first Asian American authors and she made a large impact on the way people in North America viewed Chinese immigrants through her writing. Sui Sin Far lived in many places, and made an effort to live in areas with large Chinese communities. She remained unmarried, and directed her efforts towards supporting her many siblings and helping impoverished Chinese immigrants. She died on April 7, 1914 in Montreal, Canada. The Chinese community in Montreal was grateful for Sui Sin Far’s contributions, and they created a memorial with the words, “The righteous one does not forget China” on her tombstone.

Female Authors

Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz was born around November 12, 1651 in Mexico in a town called San Miguel Nepantla Tepetlixa. She began her love for writing at the age of nine. A couople of years later, she decided to become a nun at the Covent of Santa Paula of the Hieronymite in Mexico City. Sor Juana wrote on a variety of different topics such as romance, comedy, and secular subjects. Not only was this unique because she was a nun, but she was interested about these because she was cloistered, trying to open herself up to the outside world. One of her most most famous work was a poem called “You Men”. Here is an excerpt from it. “Whether you're favored or disdained, nothing can leave you satisfied. You whimper if you're turned away, you sneer if you've been gratified.”Sor Juana was very passionate about women’s rights in her church. , she held a big debate with her bishop. To her womens rights was hand in hand with equality strongly advocated her passion in this subject matter. Later, She later died in Mexico in 1695. Sor Juana was a woman of passion, freedom, and strength that showed not only in her literature but her personality and daily life.

Other Notable Authors

                                                                  Abigail Adams

Abigail Smith Adams, wife to the United States of America’s beloved former president; John Adams, was born Weymouth, Massachusetts on November 11, 1744. She never received a formal education. However, she did learn how to read and write at home. She loved reading literature such as Shakespeare. She had a great interest in government, philosophy, laws, and politics. Abigail suffered from poor health as a young woman and did not contain enough energy to be employed. The little energy that she had was devoted to corresponding with friends and family via letter. At age 19 in the year of 1764, Abigail married John Adams. She quickly gave birth to three sons, and two daughters. She had the children relatively close together in age. She helped in managing the household finances and she also contributed to the up keeping of their family farm property. While John Adams was away serving the country as the colony’s delegate, she wrote him many (what are now famous) letters. Abigail served as the First Lady at the White House when John took presidency over the United States. Once John was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, she retired. She focused on her children, husband, and grandchildren. Even in her old age, Abigail’s desires and interests in politics never went away. Abigail died at the age of 73 in her home located in Quincy, Massachusetts on October 28, 1818. She is buried at First Unitarian Church, Quincy, Massachusetts.

Mary White Rowlandson was born in Somersetshire, England, in the year 1637. Her parents were Joan and John White, Mary was one of nine siblings. Around the year 1639, she and her family immigrated to America. There she married Joseph Rowlandson in 1656 in the town Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Joseph was ordained a Puritan minster in 1660. Mary and Joseph had four children, with one dying as an infant. In 1678, Joseph Rowlandson died suddenly of unknown causes. Mary remarried in 1679, to Captain Samuel Talcott. Captain Talcott died in 1691. With Mary following in death in the year 1710 or 1711, it’s not certain the exact date. The defining moment in Mary Rowlandson’s life came in the year 1676. This was towards the end of the King Phillip war. At this time a group of Nipmunk and Narragansett Indians attacked Lancaster, they burned the town and captured many of the settlers. Mary and her children were apart of these captured settlers. They were held for three months by the Indians, this time was the inspiration for Mary’s book which is what she is most known for. Her book was originally named “The Sovereignty and Goodness of GOD, Together With the Faithfulness of His Promises Displayed; Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson” published in 1682. Her book was on the best sellers list and it was one of the first books to talk about what it was like being held captive by Indians.