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Micromobility refers to a range of small, lightweight vehicles operating at speeds typically below 25 km/h (15 mph) and driven by users personally (unlike rickshaws). Micromobility devices include bicycles, e-bikes, electric scooters, electric skateboards, shared bicycle fleets, and electric pedal assisted (pedelec) bicycles.[1]

Initial definitions set the primary condition for inclusion in the category of micromobility to be a gross vehicle weight of less than 500 kilograms (1,100 lb).[2] However, the definition has evolved to exclude devices with internal combustion engines and those with top speeds above 45 kilometres (28 mi)/h.

The term Micromobility was originally coined by Horace Dediu[3]

Characteristics [Ellen]

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Micromobility is a wheeled type of transportation that is low-speed, operated by a single person, and  meant for travel over a short distance [4] Micromobility can include both human-powered and electric vehicles, though electric vehicles cannot have internal combustion engines or travel over 45km/h (25m/h) to remain classified as micromobility.[5] Micromobility can be both privately owned or available as rental vehicles, often in the form of dockless sharing. [6]

Types of Vehicles

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Bikes, electric scooters, skateboards are all types of micromobility.[7] Other types include golf carts, kick scooters, onewheels, personal transporters, roller skates, segways, unicycles, tricycles, handcycles, mobility scooter, quadracycles, and wheelchairs.[8]

Classification

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A specific type of micromobility

History [Devin & Russell]

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Original forms of micromobility, like bicycles and scooters, have both been around since 1817, and it was not until 1908 that cars came to dominate in modal share in cities such as New York.[9] Since then, use of bicycles as a utilitarian urban transport mode (as opposed to for recreation or sport) has been relatively low in comparison to trips made by private vehicles outside of a handful of cities in China, the Netherlands, and Denmark.

Pedalless

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In 1655, Stephan Farffler, a 22-year-old paraplegic watchmaker, built the world's first self-propelling chair on a three-wheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels.[10][11] However, the device had an appearance of a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel.

The invalid carriage or Bath chair brought the technology into more common use from around 1760.[12]

William Kent developed an early stroller in 1733.[13] Strollers became affordable and widespread due to new manufacturing materials in the 1930s.

The push scooter was invented by Denis Johnson in 1819 and usually constructed mainly from wood. Motorised scooters first appeared as autopeds enjoying a brief boom in popularity in 1915.[14] The aluminium folding scooter popularised the push scooter in the 1990s.[15] E-scooters first appeared in 2003.[16]

In 1882 a sports newspaper in Stockholm first reported a kicksled as a vehicle that could be kicked forwards on ice and snow.[17]

In 1965, Owen Maclaren designed a lightweight stroller with an aluminium frame further popularising the stroller. In the 1960s and 1970s skateboards enjoyed popularity, displacing kick scooters which nearly disappeared completely.

Pedal

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The pedal powered tricycle was invented by two Frenchmen, named Blanchard and Maguier in 1789. It predates the invention of the Bicycle in Germany by Karl von Drais in 1817 (which did not use pedals until the 1860s). Tricycles were not popular until 1876, when James Starley introduced the Coventry Lever Tricycle, a side-driven two-track, lever-driven machine, and that started the tricycling craze in Great Britain. [18] This was replaced with the bike boom of the 1890s as a result of the popular introduction of Starley's safety bicycle.

Human-powered quadracycles were invented in 1853 and enjoyed modest popularity.[19] This was followed by quadricycles in 1896 which included a motor. Recumbent bicycles were invented in 1893. Velomobiles (essentially enclosed recumbents) were invented in 1927. Velocars were invented by Mochet in 1932. The first mass produced electric velomobile was the Sinclair C5.

Rental

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Main article: Bicycle sharing system

While micromobility vehicles have long been available for users to purchase, it was the servitization of these modes of transportation—enabling users to use the nearest micromobility vehicle without having to purchase or store it, and facilitating the flexibility of one-way trips—that led to growth[20] in areas where it was available. The rise of the sharing economy resulted in a massive increase in access to micromobility in many cities, first with the introduction of public bikeshare systems, and then with privately funded and operated dockless bikeshare and electric kick scooter (e-scooter) fleets. Most early bikeshare services specified locations, or docks, where vehicles needed to be picked up and left. From 2022 on, the so-called hybrid model, locking systems that can be locked both with and without a dock at the same time, and compatible IOT platforms have been developed.[21]

21st century

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The second generation was dockless bicycle-sharing introduced in 2000, the third was dockless electric bicycle sharing introduced in 2017.[22]

The fourth generation of bicycle sharing services employed a dockless model which allows users to end their trip and leave the shared micromobility device anywhere or within a geo-fenced area. Dockless bikeshare first took off in Chinese megacities,[23] and although it began with traditional, non-electric bicycles, it served as a template for what would be possible with electric and motorized bicycles, scooters, and other form factors. The availability of relatively inexpensive batteries, displays and GPS receivers, enabled by the smartphone supply chains, provided easily accessible components to facilitate dockless services worldwide.[24] Outside of Chinese cities, non-electric dockless bikeshare has largely disappeared, with many companies switching from bicycles to electric kick scooters in 2019.[25]

Shared electric kick scooters are considered to have one of the most rapid adoption rates in transport, nearly 4% in one year. Comparatively, it took bikeshare eight years to reach 13% adoption, and carshare 18 years to reach 16% in major United States cities.[26]

Origins

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The original iteration of micromobility was in the form of bicycle-sharing services in Europe. The very first generation of bicycle-sharing was non-profit and very small in scale, with the central aim to address the social and environmental impacts of urban sprawl. The white bike program in Amsterdam was unveiled in 1965, where 50 white bikes were unlocked and presented to the public, completely free of charge. Despite the program’s good intentions, there were a number of significant issues resulting from theft, unorganized return spots, and overall dysfunction of the system.[27] Similar programs were created in the coming years in France (1974) and Netherlands (1975), all of which were located in densely populated areas of cities.

The second generation of bicycle-sharing services revolutionized the previously non-profit program into a far more organized business endeavor. With docking stations and coin depositories, this approach made its way across trans-continental borders, as Wisconsin and Texas were notable adopters of the new model.[27] Norway (1996), Finland (2000), and Denmark (2005) were among the first three countries to include locks to deter the previous predecessor’s problems. However, there was still a major issue regarding the reliability of bike-sharing: the bikes, themselves- which led to the third generation.

The third generation of bicycle-sharing services attempted to establish a sense of reliability and functionality with the help of advanced technologies. Tracking of each individual bicycle was enabled, reservations could be made through smart phones, and payment options were digitally compatible.[27] As a result, the popularity of bicycle-sharing services reached a new peak. Over 100 sharing services were created spanning across 125 cities in 4 different continents, though France was, arguably, the most notable. The implementation of Velo’v in 2005, was the first sharing system that integrated advanced technology, resulting in over 1,500 bicycles available through reservation from Velo’v alone. LE Velo’v STAR (2009) and Vélib were other programs that were created in conjunction with this new iteration of micromobility.[27]

The fourth generation of bicycle-sharing services integrated further functionality and compatibility with multi-modal technologies and advanced payment interfaces. E-bikes replaced the original bicycle, and fully digitized touch screen kiosks provided a more user-friendly customer experience. BIXI, a Canadian-based service company were among the first to douse the bicycle-sharing service with the 21st centuries’ technological advances.[27] Due to the enhanced features, BIXI became the very first large-scale North American bike-sharing company, ultimately paving the way for further innovations with micromobility.[27]

Popularity

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The speed of micromobility diffusion has not come without growing pains. Some cities were caught off guard with the sudden influx of shared dockless vehicles, especially after companies launched their fleets without municipal approval.[28] In 2018, Seattle became the first US city to establish a permanent regulatory permit requiring shared dockless vehicle operators to meet certain requirements in order to provide service in the city.[29] Many other cities followed suit, drafting regulatory frameworks that would permit these services and more seamlessly integrate them with existing transportation.[30]

Operators, users and municipalities are moving toward an equilibrium where the benefits of micromobility have become apparent.[31] Micromobility users have reported replacing between one-quarter[32] and one-third[33] of car trips with micromobility, and many users report being able to take trips they otherwise would not or could not have made if micromobility options were not available. The potential for micromobility to replace automobile trips, coupled with financial opportunities presented by the massive injection of venture capital into the industry, has led to global automakers such as Ford and General Motors to invest in micromobility services.[34]

However, data shows that micromobility users also replace public transit (notably, bus) and walking trips. Concerns have also been raised about the life-cycle emissions of electric micromobility modes such as e-scooters,[35] as well as the long-term financial viability of micromobility companies given minimal differences between product offerings and operating costs in the hundreds of millions of US dollars.[36]

Commercialization [Russell]

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Ownership model

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The ownership segment of the market relies on consumers who have purchased their own micromobility vehicle, usually distributed through retailers.[37] The global market for bike ownership is large in comparison to other business models, due to the fact that subscription and bike-sharing models were introduced much more recently. However, the growth of the ownership/retail market for micromobility vehicles has been minor in comparison to other faster growing options such as vehicle rental as of 2021.[38]

Rental model and mobility as a service

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Main article: Mobility as a service

Mobility as a service (MaaS) in the context of micromobility, would be the rental of vehicles as a service, allowing consumers to rent vehicles for a temporary period[37] One mode of payment follows the pay-per-trip model, which consists of an unlock fee, as well as a per-minute rate which will be charged to the user at the end of their trip ( according to model used by bird ).[39] The subscription model is an alternative mode of payment, which consists of paying a recurring fee that is often monthly, to be provided the vehicle service throughout their subscribed period.[40] According to the Boston Consulting Group, subscription-based vehicle services are the fastest-growing option for micromobility usage. Its compound annual growth rate is predicted to go up to 30% by 2030. Proving to be a potential alternative to owning micromobility vehicles.[38] Micromobility sharing and rental services have seen great growth in the United States with up to a 60% increase in usage as of 2019 in comparison to 2018. There were 136 million recorded micromobility service trips in 2019, of which 96 million used dockless vehicles, while the remaining 40 million used dock stationed vehicles.[41]

Issues [Arryan]

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There are a lot of mechanical, electrical, and human factors hazards associated with micromobility products, which calls for aggressive policies in order to reduce injuries. The three major danger categories that apply to micromobility goods are mechanical, electrical, and human factors. Falls, collisions with objects, pedestrians, and moving cars are a few examples of mechanical risks, as are structural or frame breakdowns and braking problems. Electrical risks include issues with battery charging, fires caused by mechanical battery mounting problems (battery short-circuiting), and braking issues as a result of software faults. The risks mentioned above, as well as those related to user expectations and reasonably foreseen use cases, such as those involving user positioning (for example, probable forward body positioning due to handle placement and foot area width) and the location or operation of emergency controls (for example, brakes), which affect the user's capacity to react safely in an emergency, are all examples of human factors hazards.

[42]Safety Issues

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Personal

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Ridesharing and rental scooters have increased popularity and usage of micromobility products, resulting in being potentially used in more congested areas. This might increase the chance of accidents, especially because helmet use is limited.

There have been several injuries and deaths resulting from micro mobility products especially e-scooters, which calls for tighter personal safety regulations and policies. Between 2015 and 2019, there have been over 330 fire-related incidents concerned with micromobility products which led to more $9 million in property damage. Additionally, use of self balancing scooters have resulted in more than 90000 emergency room visits from falls. [43]

Personal micromobility safety can be improved by raising awareness and training, making safety equipment mandatory for riders universally, enforcement of Blood Alcohol Concentration limit (BAC) limit for riders, and a safer infrastructure.

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Different regions have different laws regarding micromobility. While some states in the US allow riding without helmets, others have helmets as a legal requirement while commuting on micromobility products. For example,  Other countries, however, might have a completely different set of regulations.

United Kingdom
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Due to a clause in the Highways Act, these essential micromobility modes are currently prohibited in cycle lanes and on pedestrian walkways. Recently, meanwhile, the Department of Transportation has taken steps to encourage legal change as part of the "Future of Transport" program to support micromobility options and has polled the public on the subject. E-scooters and other similar modes of transportation are the subject of numerous local trials analyzing the effects, advantages, and difficulties they provide. One example that has been successful is in Cambridge, where e-bikes have recently joined e-scooters on the streets.[44]

The European Union
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Across the EU, different countries have their own legislations with respect to electric scooters and electric bikes. For example, Germany allowed e-scooters on roads with a maximum speed of 20km/hr.[45] In France, E-scooter parking on sidewalks is prohibited and carries a €135 fine. Additionally, e-scooters cannot technically travel at speeds greater than 25 km/h in Paris[46]. Most countries in Europe have converged around the 25km/h speed limit consensus.

The United States
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There has been a lack of focus surrounding the micromobility sector in the US, so different states have their own laws with respect to micromobility products. At the moment, 10 states have banned the use of e-scooters in public, while 38 states permit their use. Hawaii recently incorporated electric scooters into traffic law.[47] [48]

Infrastructure

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The recent Inflation Reduction Act has provided unprecedented opportunities for improving the micromobility infrastructure globally[49]. Some of the infrastructure limitations include a lack of charging stations and lack of bike lanes for micromobility vehicles. These limitations can be tackled properly integrating a micromobility system into the pre-existing infrastructure in order to streamline the micromobility and shared mobility experience. Improving the micromobility infrastructure can lead to a reduction in emissions and contribute to the carbon neutrality goal.

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References

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  1. ^ "The Electric Assist: Leveraging E-bikes and E-scooters for More Livable Cities" (PDF). Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. 2019. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  2. ^ Dediu, Horace. "The Micromobility Definition". micromobility.io. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  3. ^ "The Micromobility Definition". Micromobility. Retrieved 2022-10-14.
  4. ^ "Definition of MICROMOBILITY". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  5. ^ O’Hern, Steve; Estgfaeller, Nora (2020-11-15). "A Scientometric Review of Powered Micromobility". Sustainability. 12 (22): 9505. doi:10.3390/su12229505. ISSN 2071-1050.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ Tuncer, Sylvaine; Brown, Barry (2020-04-23). "E-scooters on the Ground: Lessons for Redesigning Urban Micro-Mobility". Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. CHI '20. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery: 1–14. doi:10.1145/3313831.3376499. ISBN 978-1-4503-6708-0.
  7. ^ "Micromobility - Fact Sheets - Livability - FHWA". www.fhwa.dot.gov. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  8. ^ "Micromobility - Fact Sheets - Livability - FHWA". www.fhwa.dot.gov. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  9. ^ Sovacool, Benjamin K. (1 March 2009). "Early modes of transport in the United States: Lessons for modern energy policymakers". Policy and Society. 27 (4): 411–427. doi:10.1016/j.polsoc.2009.01.006. ISSN 1449-4035.
  10. ^ Bellis, Mary. "History of the Wheelchair". thoughtco.com. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
  11. ^ Koerth-Baker, Maggie (2 February 2009). "Who Invented the Wheelchair?". mentalfloss.com. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
  12. ^ "A History of the World – Object: Bath Chair". BBC. 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-11-19.
  13. ^ Amato, Joseph (November 2004). On foot: a history of walking - Google Book Search. ISBN 9780814705025. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
  14. ^ Mansky, Jackie. "The Motorized Scooter Boom That Hit a Century Before Dockless Scooters". Smithsonian Magazine.
  15. ^ "HISTORY". August 2, 2014.
  16. ^ "The Man Behind the Scooter Revolution". Bloomberg.com. 26 September 2018.
  17. ^ "Bubble Bike Store". Bubble Bike Store.
  18. ^ "* 2. History of Tricycles". April 11, 2009.
  19. ^ "History of Quadracycles - Types and Facts". www.bicyclehistory.net.
  20. ^ "Lime, Bird, Spin: Why scooter start-ups are suddenly worth billions". CNBC. 2018-07-13.
  21. ^ "Scootable for Micromobility Solutions". Scootable. Retrieved 2022-05-30.
  22. ^ "The Three Eras of Micromobility". Micromobility Industries.
  23. ^ "China's Bike-Sharing Fever Has Reached Saturation Point". Time.
  24. ^ Belton, Padraig (2018-05-15). "How cheap dockless hire bikes are flooding the world". BBC News.
  25. ^ Vuocolo, Alex (2019-03-04). "Why Are Bike Share Companies Pivoting to E-Scooters?". Bicycling. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  26. ^ Clewlow, Regina (2018-08-06). "The Micro-Mobility Revolution". Medium. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  27. ^ a b c d e f Abduljabbar, Rusul L.; Liyanage, Sohani; Dia, Hussein (2021-03-01). "The role of micro-mobility in shaping sustainable cities: A systematic literature review". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 92: 102734. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2021.102734. ISSN 1361-9209.
  28. ^ Lazo, Luz. "Dockless bike, scooter firms clash with U.S. cities over regulations". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  29. ^ "Seattle Bikeshare Program & Permit Process". MOD Learning Center. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  30. ^ Manchester, Julia (2018-12-12). "Growing use of e-scooters reflects increasing demand for micro-mobility, says tech CEO". TheHill. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
  31. ^ Feasley, Levi Tillemann ,Lassor (2018-12-07). "Forget the Car. E-Scooters Could Save The City". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2019-01-18.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Lime (October 2019). "Lime for a Sustainable Paris" (PDF). Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  33. ^ Portland Bureau of Transportation (2018). "2018 E-Scooter Findings Report". Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  34. ^ Rosevear, John (2018-12-07). "Micromobility 101 for Investors -". The Motley Fool. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
  35. ^ Moreau, Hélie; de Jamblinne de Meux, Loïc; Zeller, Vanessa; D’Ans, Pierre; Ruwet, Coline; Achten, Wouter M. J. (January 2020). "Dockless E-Scooter: A Green Solution for Mobility? Comparative Case Study between Dockless E-Scooters, Displaced Transport, and Personal E-Scooters". Sustainability. 12 (5): 1803. doi:10.3390/su12051803.
  36. ^ Bliss, Laura (27 January 2020). "4 Predictions for the Electric Scooter Industry". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  37. ^ a b Rane, Romil Tushar (2022-01-19). "A strategic business model analysis of the micromobility industry". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  38. ^ a b "Putting Micromobility at the Center of Urban Mobility". BCG Global. 2022-05-16. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  39. ^ "Bird Scooter Cost: Pricing, Fees, And More | Ridester.com". www.ridester.com. 2021-09-02. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  40. ^ "Subscription models, the future of shared micromobility?". Shared Micromobility. 2020-09-23. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  41. ^ "Shared Micromobility in the U.S.: 2019". National Association of City Transportation Officials. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  42. ^ Consumer Product Safety Commission. Office of Hazard Identification and Reduction, ed. (2020-04-08). "Safety Concerns Associated with Micromobility Products". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  43. ^ Consumer Product Safety Commission. Office of Hazard Identification and Reduction, ed. (2020-04-08). "Safety Concerns Associated with Micromobility Products". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  44. ^ "E-scooter trials: guidance for local authorities and rental operators". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  45. ^ "Germany: Regulation to Allow Use of E-scooters on Public Roads Enacted". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  46. ^ Daniella (2022-02-16). "European kick scooter laws in 2022: How to ride legally". NIU Community. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  47. ^ Staff, H. N. N. "New law signed, aimed at regulating 'micro-mobility' companies on Oahu". https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com. Retrieved 2022-11-04. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help)
  48. ^ JK (2021-07-07). "International Legal Positions on Micromobility". Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  49. ^ "Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 | Internal Revenue Service". www.irs.gov. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
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