User:D0T1ro/Disaster risk reduction

Planned edits to the Disaster Risk Reduction page:

General Overview:

• Go through the inline citations and make sure the formatting is correct and all sources are properly cited
• Add pictures and graphs to more sections, making sure that each are added in the relevant areas
• Improve the Development of Concept section
  • delete large sections of other articles
  • improve on a timeline of terms leading to disaster risk reduction
• Add more International Policies
  • expand the "other" section to include more specific policy subtopics

Specific Plans:

Lead:

For the most part, the current lead seems to be a solid introduction to disaster risk reduction. However, some of the statements are a biased summary of the rest of the article, so I plan to rewrite this description from a more objective perspective. I intend to add a more comprehensive definition and analysis of the term, as opposed to detailing the information to come in the article. Furthermore, the top of the page has a banner stating that some citations are incorrectly formatted, which makes the page seem unreliable. I will go through the article and fix these citations so that when one first opens the page, it seems more trustworthy.

Evolution of term:

New subsection of "development of concept"

Describe how, due to climate change, environmental hazard terms such as ‘natural disasters’ are no longer appropriate, since human action has affected many of the natural processes. Detail a brief history of human efforts responding to hazards, and how action after the event evolved to mitigation and risk reduction efforts.

Mitigation vs risk reduction: COMPLETED

New subsection of "development of concept"

Provide a brief description of the term mitigation, as well as risk management (slightly different from risk reduction but will help emphasize the difference between the terms). I will then compare and contrast the definitions and provide examples as to which term should be used in certain scenarios, and the applications of each in the field of hazards and disasters.

Effect of Climate Change on Disasters: COMPLETED

New section

Climate change has enough of an impact on disasters that I think it should be given a separate section, rather than as a subtopic of “development of concept.” Some of this section can be based on “climate change adaptation,” but it would provide more detail into the scientific impact of climate change on disasters, and how disaster risk has to prepare for more devastating events due to the increase of climate change.

International Disaster Risk Reduction Day: COMPLETED

New subsection of "international policies"

Create a section dedicated to the International Disaster Risk Reduction Day, which is October 13. This topic is discussed in the “other” section of international policies, but can be expanded into its own subtopic. Provide examples of actions and activities of this day in past years, as well as how awareness is spread. Furthermore, add information on who created the holiday, and when.

United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals:

New subsection of "international policies"

Some information can be taken from the deleted “sustainable development” subtopic of “development of concept.” This section should touch on the creation of the SDGs as well as the specific goals that apply to this topic, namely SDG 11 and 13, as well as provide links to the pages of each.

International Disaster Risk Reduction Decade: COMPLETED

New section

Include information about the 90’s, dubbed the Disaster Risk Reduction decade. Provide background as to why this was created, and which facet of government created the term. Detail the resulting policies and actions that occurred on the subject (the process of their creation and their impact on society). Then, provide a summary of the results of this decade of action, and the long lasting effects of the programs and their impacts on society today.

Gender Inequality:

Updated subsection of "Issues and Challenges"

The current gender section has information about gender inequalities and natural hazards, but not necessarily risk reduction. Expand on gender inequalities in environmental issues, with a focus on women working to reduce risk/mitigate hazards. Add information about the unique role women can play in risk reduction based upon society’s expectation of women as caretakers. Also, remove the picture, as it is not super relevant.

Additions if there is extra time:

• in climate change, relate to sustainable development (or just expand in general)
• add other examples (countries)
• update issues and challenges section
• more definitions?
• more international policies?
  • BETTER INTRO TO INTL POLICY
  • other section (?) copied into sandbox

Article Draft

Lead

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) sometimes called disaster risk management (DRM) is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing the risks of disaster. It aims to reduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as dealing with the environmental and other hazards that trigger them. In other words, the aim of DRR is "to prevent new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development".

^ Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing the risks of disaster. It aims to promote sustainable development by increasing the resilience of communities to any disasters they might face. DRR is normally used as policies intended to "define goals and objectives across different timescales and with concrete targets, indicators and time frames." [unga, 16] The concept is also called disaster risk management (DRM).

Disaster risk reduction has been strongly influenced by the research on vulnerability since the mid-1970s as well as the mapping of natural disaster risks.[cited] ^^ Disaster risk reduction is the responsibility of development and relief agencies alike. It should be an integral part of the way such organizations do their work, not an add-on or one-off action.^{[citation needed]} Disaster risk reduction is very wide-ranging: Its scope is much broader and deeper than conventional emergency management. *There is potential for disaster risk reduction initiatives in most sectors of development and humanitarian work.

^Disaster risk reduction decreases the vulnerability of communities by mitigating effects of disasters, reducing severity and volume of risky events, and promoting improved resilience. Since climate change is increasing the severity of hazardous events that can become disasters, DRR and climate change adaptation are often associated together in development efforts. There is potential for disaster risk reduction initiatives in most sectors of development and humanitarian work. Strategies and implementation can come from community volunteers, local agencies, federal governments, and even international groups such as the United Nations.

Internationally, an important initiative is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. It aims to help countries establish national and local strategies for DRR; as of 2022, 125 countries had national strategies. *The International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction (October 13th) has helped increase the visibility of DRR and promote a culture of prevention. Some of the main issues and challenges include the importance of communities and local organisations in disaster risk management, governance of disaster risk and how this relates to development, and gender sensitivity of disaster impacts and disaster prevention strategies.

^The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction is an important international initiative that has helped 123 countries adopt both federal and local DRR strategies as of 2022. [citation 22, report of midterm review]

Definitions

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is defined by United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) as those actions which am to "prevent new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development".

Related Terminology

Disaster Risk Reduction relies heavily on clear and proper definitions of its related terminology in order to accurately convey policy plans and procedures. However, many of these terms do not have universally agreed upon definitions, or the proper terminology has evolved. For example, scientists have moved away from the term "natural disaster" and instead prefer "natural hazard" or even "un-natural disaster," as the disastrous aspects of these events are caused felt due human action, making them inherently not natural. Therefore, definitions to a number of terms related to hazards and risk reduction are necessary.

Disaster management

Landmines are also a hazard that cause much loss of life and injury. Female de-miners in Lebanon set off to clear landmines.

Disaster management thinking and practice since the 1970s has included more focus on understanding why disasters happen. It has also focused on actions that can reduce risk before a disaster occurs. This has put more emphasis on mitigation and preparedness in addition to the response and recovery phases of disasters. It has been widely embraced by governments, disaster planners and civil society organisations.

DRR is such an all-embracing concept that it has proved difficult to define or explain in detail, although the broad idea is clear enough. It is generally understood to mean the broad development and application of policies, strategies and practices to minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout society. Its policy goals and objectives are defined in disaster risk reduction strategies and plans.

The term 'disaster risk management' (DRM) is often used in the same context and to mean much the same thing. That is, a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing risks of all kinds associated with hazards and human activities. DRM is more properly applied to the operational aspects of DRR: the practical implementation of DRR initiatives. In other words, disaster risk reduction is the policy objective of disaster risk management.

Resilience

See also: Community resilience

Resilience is scientifically defined as the efficiency with which a system can reduce the extent and duration of a disruption. The concept can take two forms: hard and soft resilience. Hard resilience refers to the strength of a structure to withstand pressure, while soft resilience is whether a system can recover from a disruptive event without changing its core function.

Alternatively, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) defines resilience as “the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.”

(Sentence below is moving from the Resilience section to the Hyogo section)

Subtitled "Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters," the HFA emphasizes how resilience to hazards is needed for community development and planning.

Vulnerability

According to the UNISDR, vulnerabilities are "the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard." The most vulnerable people or communities are those who have the most difficulties accessing resources they need to respond to an event.

Vulnerability plays a critical role in the analysis of risk, as the risk a structure faces is proportional to its level of vulnerability. Risk is often defined by the likelihood of an event occurring and the vulnerability of the community to that event. The more vulnerable the community, the more risk they face.

Mitigation

Mitigation is the action taken before an event to reduce any possible negative outcomes or harmful effects. Natural risk assessments commonly use the term mitigation, while broader climate change reports tend to use adaptive capacity instead (mitigation holds another definition in the scope of climate change). Although related, adaptive capacity refers more to the potential to adjust a system, while mitigation is the actual implementation of adjustments.

Mitigation is often used interchangeably with risk reduction, however the terms have a few key differences. Both aim to reduce the number of negative effects of hazards, but risk reduction focuses on reducing the likelihood of the event itself, while mitigation focuses on reducing the impact of the event.

Mitigation planning helps local governments lessen the impacts of hazards within their communities. No two locations have the same hazard risks and communities know their experiences best; for example, even if a hazard is not recorded in government data, locals will take note of anything that occurs in their neighborhood. Policymakers can use community input to create more efficient mitigation plans.

(below paragraph to be moved)

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has an example of a mitigation plan. Their plan contains 4 steps: organize resources, assess risks, develop mitigation strategy, and implement the plan. These steps are broad, as they are designed to be applied to a wide variety of hazards. FEMA also has more specific policy plans, such as their Hazard Mitigation Field Book (HMFB) on Roadways. This document focuses on preventing road erosion, inundation, and debris pileup caused by damaged culverts, embankments, and road surfaces. Since this is a smaller topic, the field book is able to include more detailed advice on how to handle each problem. The HMFB uses a project identification diagram to realize each issue and a selection matrix to match that problem with an effective solution using duration, feasibility, design, and environmental considerations. [INSERT CHART IF COPYRIGHT THINGS ARE OK] While only one small guide to hazard mitigation, the HMFB serves as a solid example of mitigation policy. [citation needed]

Effects of Climate Change on Hazards

See also: Climate change adaptation

Hydrometeorological hazards such as droughts, floods, and cyclones are naturally occurring phenomena.[source] However, climate change has caused these hazards to become more unreliable, frequent and severe. Hazards are easily influenced by large scale changes in the ocean, atmosphere, and biosphere such as global warming, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events, all of which are human caused results of climate change. When the impact of these events becomes too extreme, they are often called disasters.

Disasters are defined by their influence on people: if a hazard overwhelms or negatively affects a community, it is considered a disaster. Due to increasing climate change cause by humans, more natural hazards are reaching disaster status. As of 2008, there were on average 400 disaster events per year, more than double the amount since the 1980s.

Countries contributing most to climate change are often at the lowest risk of feeling the consequences. [IPCC graphs insert if possible!!!] As of 2019, countries with the highest vulnerability per capita release the lowest amount of emissions per capita, and yet still experience the most heightened droughts and extreme precipitation. Between 1970 and 2019, 91% of deaths from hazards occurred in developing countries. These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards.

Sustainable development

Sustainable development was notorious for its "slippery nature" and ambiguities: multiple definitions have led to multiple interpretations in the agenda setting environment. However in 1987, the Brundtland Report defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."[use the 2nd source!] Since this definition, the term has standardized and led to clearer political interpretation.

Sustainable development balances between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. The economic systems aims to improve economic growth, equity, and efficiency; social systems work towards empowerment, social cohesion, and cultural diversity; and the biological/environmental system promotes genetic diversity, productivity, and resilience. Many of these objectives tie directly into disaster risk reduction, and most sustainable development plans mention DRR.

Sustainable Development Goals

See also: Sustainable Development Goals

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a renowned example of sustainability policy. The United Nations adopted these 17 SDGs addressing problems ranging from poverty to education to climate change. The intersectionality between these issues means that each issue can only be solved if development is made to the others as well.

DRR is applicable and relevant to several of the SDGs:

SDG11 (sustainable cities and communities) lists DRR as a means of implementation. Targets 11.5 and 11.B call for more investment into disaster risk resilience strategies and policies, and 11.B aims to assess DRR strategies in accordance with the Sendai Framework.

SDG13 (climate action) also uses DRR as a means of implementation. Target 13.1 aims to strengthen resilience to climate related hazards, and measures the number of local and federal governments who have adopted DRR strategies.

Numerous other SDGs also rely on DRR strategies as an interdisciplinary method of achieving their goals. For example, SDG9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) aims to build infrastructure that is resilient to hazards, and SDG1 (end poverty) asserts that many impoverished people have the highest vulnerability to disasters. DRR implementation has long lasting effects on a wide range of social issues due to these related factors.

International Policies

Sendai Framework

The Sendai Framework places the responsibility of reducing disaster risk primarily on federal governments through seven targets divided into two categories: substantial reductions and increases. It aims to reduce disaster mortality, people affected, economic loss, and damage to infrastructure and services. The remaining targets work to increase access to warning systems, aid to developing countries, and the number of countries with disaster risk reduction strategies. Since the adoption of the Sendai Framework in 2015, the number of countries with national DRR strategies has increased dramatically, from 55 to 123 countries in 2022. [citation already in article!]

Furthermore, the framework details four priorities for action to be accomplished by 2030:

1. Understanding disaster risk
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness

These priorities acknowledge current shortcomings of DRR efforts, such as the lack of communication between local and federal governments and private programs, as well inequities faced by women and people with disabilities in the realm of disaster response.

The United Nations General Assembly held a Midterm Review of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 in May 2023, which marked the halfway point of the framework's timeline. The report on this review contained both an analysis of the progress of the last 7 years and new adaptions to each priority for the remaining years.

This section is an excerpt from Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.[edit]

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) is an international document that was adopted by the United Nations (UN) member states between 14 and 18 March 2015 at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan, and endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015. It is the successor agreement to the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015), which had been the most encompassing international accord to date on disaster risk reduction.

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

The United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s an International decade for natural disaster reduction. The United Nations' Secretary-General had been tasked with overseeing research into the relationship between disasters and development, and in 1987 reported that there was room for improvement from the international community. Due to the increasing numbers of international deaths and damages due to climate related hazards, especially in developing countries, the United Nations believed dedicating a decade to the topic would substantially improve policies at local, regional, and federal levels.

The 1987 General Assembly session proposed 5 goals to guide policy efforts:

1. Improve the capacity to mitigate effects of natural disasters, especially in developing countries
2. Devise plans to apply preexisting knowledge of disasters from diverse perspectives
3. Foster programs aimed to close knowledge gaps
4. Disseminate information about current measures being applied
5. Develop programs to prevent and mitigate disasters specific to each hazard and location

Before the start of the decade in 1989, The General Assembly discussed plans for the decade in more detail and created the International Framework of Action for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. This framework restates the goals, and adds further guidelines for national governments, the United Nations Systems, and the Secretary-General to follow.

Federal governments were encouraged to participate in the decade, formulate national mitigation programs, create scientific committees, encourage local action, inform the Secretary-General of their actions, increase public awareness, monitor the impact of disasters on health care, and improve availability of emergency supplies. The proposed role of the United Nations System focused on holding countries accountable for these goals, as well as providing resources or policy plans countries may need for implementation. However, many of the tasks given to the United Nations fall to the Secretary-General.

During the 1990s, there were three Secretary-Generals: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Boutros Boutros-Ghalil, and Koji Annan. Over the decade, these secretaries were tasked with establishing and leading a number of committees for the decade, including a scientific and technical committee on the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, a special high-level council to provide general advice and promote awareness, and a secratariat that would handle daily activities and support the other committees. These groups, as well as leaders of each country, would report their progress to the Secretary-General, who would oversee all progress and report to the General Assembly every two years on the progress of the decade's goals.

International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction

The United Nations General Assembly designated October 13th as the International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction (IDDRR) to encourage citizens and governments alike to foster more disaster-resilient communities. The day was created in 1989 as part of the United Nations' proclamation of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Originally, the IDDRR was on the second Wednesday of October and intended to highlight the goals of the decade for disaster reduction. In 2009 the day was officially set as October 13, rather than the second Wednesday of the month.

The IDDRR supports the themes of the Sendai Framework, especially after the Midterm Review of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The 2023 IDDRR, just months after this report, intended to bolster the framework's new plan for accelerated disaster resistance by highlighting inequalities in disaster preparedness. [FUN STAT ABOUT INEQUALITIES FROM ANOTHER SOURCE]. The 2023 IDDRR used the tagline "Fighting Inequality for a Resilient Future" and hashtags #ResilienceForAll, #BreakTheCycle, and #DDRDay to spread awareness on social media.

Other international initiatives (leftovers)

In 1999, UN member states approved the International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction, which reflected a shift from the traditional emphasis on disaster response to disaster reduction, by seeking to promote a "culture of prevention". Disaster risk is an indicator of poor development, so reducing disaster risk requires integrating DRR practice into the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. Decision makers need to manage risks, not just disasters.

Issues and Challenges

Communities and their organizations

Traditional emergency management/civil defense thinking makes two misleading assumptions about communities. First, it sees other forms of social organisation (voluntary and community-based organisations, informal social groupings and families) as irrelevant to emergency action. Spontaneous actions by affected communities or groups (e.g., search and rescue) are viewed as irrelevant or disruptive because they are not controlled by the authorities. The second assumption is that disasters produce passive 'victims' who are overwhelmed by crisis or dysfunctional behavior (panic, looting, self-seeking activities) and need to be controlled, in some cases by martial law. [cited2]

An alternative viewpoint emphasises the importance of communities and local organisations in disaster risk management. In this strategy, local people and organisations are the main actors in risk reduction and disaster response. Community-based disaster risk management responds to local problems and needs, capitalises on local knowledge and expertise, is cost-effective, improves the likelihood of sustainability through genuine 'ownership' of projects, strengthens community technical and organisational capacities, and empowers people by enabling them to tackle these and other challenges. [cited] Understanding the social capital already existent in the community can greatly help reducing the risk at the community level.[cited2]

Low community involvement can play a large role in increasing the severity of disaster. Community volunteers provide crucial resources to recovery efforts, such as access to communication, search and rescue efforts, supply distribution, housing and food provision, and technological assistance. Government agencies rarely "consider the needs and desires of communities" or ask for community input when implementing their DRR strategies. A case study in Rwanda showed that only 14.7% of policy utilized "community's traditional knowledge" when creating plans, despite expressed interest from the community.

Examples

United States

pre-existing FEMA info:

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has an example of a mitigation plan. Their plan contains 4 steps: organize resources, assess risks, develop mitigation strategy, and implement the plan. These steps are broad, as they are designed to be applied to a wide variety of hazards. FEMA also has more specific policy plans, such as their Hazard Mitigation Field Book (HMFB) on Roadways. This document focuses on preventing road erosion, inundation, and debris pileup caused by damaged culverts, embankments, and road surfaces. Since this is a smaller topic, the field book is able to include more detailed advice on how to handle each problem. The HMFB uses a project identification diagram to realize each issue and a selection matrix to match that problem with an effective solution using duration, feasibility, design, and environmental considerations.  [INSERT CHART IF COPYRIGHT THINGS ARE OK]

The United States has a government organization designated for emergency management. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) created a model to measure hazardous events. This assessment plan, the FEMA model, uses history, vulnerability, maximum threat, and probability of each potential disaster to predict potential damage. Each hazard is then given a rating on the scale using these criteria and comparisons to other hazards to determine the priority of mitigation efforts.

As of May 2023, FEMA has updated their Local Mitigation Planning Handbook, which provides a framework for local governments to follow in the case of hazardous events. This strategy contains 4 steps: organize resources, assess risks, develop mitigation strategy, and implement the plan. These steps are broad, as they are designed to be applied to a wide variety of hazards. FEMA also has more specific policy plans, such as their Hazard Mitigation Field Book (HMFB) on Roadways. This document focuses on preventing road erosion, inundation, and debris pileup caused by damaged culverts, embankments, and road surfaces. The HMFB uses a project identification diagram to realize each issue and a selection matrix to match that problem with an effective solution using duration, feasibility, design, and environmental considerations.  

This section is an excerpt from Federal Emergency Management Agency § Pre-disaster mitigation programs.[edit]

FEMA's Mitigation Directorate is responsible for programs that take action before a disaster, in order to identify risks and reduce injuries, loss of property, and recovery time. The agency has major analysis programs for floods, hurricanes and tropical storms, dams, and earthquakes.

Pre-Disaster Mitigation grants are available to acquire property for conversion to open space, retrofit existing buildings, construct tornado and storm shelters, manage vegetation for erosion and fire control, and small flood control projects. Critics say this program is underperforming because it is starved for funding compared to disaster response and recovery, the process of applying for a buyout is unreasonably slow, and is wasting taxpayer dollars because the National Flood Insurance Program has paid to reconstruct some properties up to 18 times. 1% of NFIP-insured properties are responsible for more than one quarter of the money the program has paid out.

Addition to Disaster response article

pre-existing article under section "disaster response planning"

The United States National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1600 Standard (NFPA, 2010) specify elements of an emergency response, as: defined responsibilities; specific actions to be taken (which must include protective actions for life safety); and communication directives. Within the standard, NFPA recognize that disasters and day-to-day emergencies are characteristically different. Nevertheless, the prescribed response elements are the same.

In support of the NFPA standard, Statoil's (2013) practical application of emergency response is across three distinct "lines" that incorporate NFPA's elements. Line 1 is responsible for the operational management of an incident; line 2, typically housed off-site, is responsible for tactical guidance and additional resource management. Finally, in the case of major incidents, line 3 provides strategic guidance, group resource management, and government and media relations.

While it is impossible to plan for every disaster, crisis or emergency, the Statoil investigation into the terrorist attacks on In Amenas place emphasis on the importance of having a disaster response. The report concludes that a disaster response framework may be utilized in an array of disaster situations, such as that at In Amenas.

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is action taken to "[reduce] existing disaster risk and [manage] residual risk." DRR plans aim to decrease the amount of disaster response necessary by planning ahead and making communities resilient to any potential hazardous events that might occur. A number of international frameworks such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction have been enacted to increase the implementation of global mitigation plans in the event of disasters.

References

1. "What is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction?". United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Retrieved October 12, 2022.