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Timeline of the Byzantine–Arab Wars

[edit]

7th century

[edit]
Year Datea Event Ref(s)
672 Abdallah ibn Qais raids Cilicia and Lycia and winters there
674 A Muslim fleet under Abdallah ibn Qais and al-Fadl ibn Ubaid raids Crete
679 The fortress of Kamacha falls to the Arabs [1]

8th century

[edit]
Year Datea Event Ref(s)
700 Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik captures Theodosiopolis and raids the Armenian Hexapolis. [2]
701 Muhammad ibn Marwan forces the governor of the Byzantine provinces eats of the Euphrates, Baanes, to submit to the Caliphate. [2]
702 The recently subdued Byzantine provinces east of the Euphrates rise in rebellion, which spreads to Armenia proper and Lazica. [2]
703 Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik conquers Mopsuestia in Cilicia, which he refortifies and establishes as the Caliphate's first major stronghold in the area. [2]
704 Abdallah and Muhammad ibn Marwan move to crush the Armenian rebellion. An Arab army besieges Sisium in Cilicia, but is defeated by Heraclius. [2]
705 Muhammad ibn Marwan ends the Armenian rebellion and executes many of the Armenian nobles. [3]
706 An Arab raid under Maimun the Mardaite is defeated by the Byzantines under Marianus near Tyana, and Maimun killed. [4]
707 In retaliation for the death of Maimun, Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik and al-Abbas ibn al-Walid lay siege to Tyana, but the city resists through the winter. [5]
708 March/June A Byzantine relief army under Theodore Karteroukas and Theophylact Salibas is defeated before Tyana, forcing the city to surrender. The inhabitants are carried off as slaves, and the city is razed to the ground. [6]
709 March/June Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Walid leads an Arab raid, followed by a major invasion under Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik. [7]
717 25 March Accession of Leo III the Isaurian to the Byzantine throne, beginning of the Isaurian dynasty [8]
1–3 September The Arab fleet arrives at Constantinople, but its rearguard is mauled by Byzantine ships. [9]
718 Spring Egyptian and Ifriqiyan squadrons arrive to reinforce the besiegers, but are largely destroyed by a Byzantine attack, while many of the Egyptian sailors defect. An Arab army is defeated in Bithynia. [8]
15 August Maslama lifts the siege of Constantinople and departs for Syria [8]
720 Spring A Byzantine fleet attacks the Arab naval base at Tinnis in Egypt [8]
721 Umar ibn Hubayra defeats the Byzantines in Armenia Quarta [10]
722 Abbas ibn al-Walid captures a fort in Paphlagonia, but his scattered men are defeated by the Byzantines [10]
723
724 Sa'id ibn Hisham and Marwan ibn Abd al-Malik launch a major raid from Malatya, capturing a fortress and executing its garrison. An Arab detachment under Qathir is destroyed, but the Arabs go on to recover possession of Kamacha. [10]
725 Mu'awiya ibn Hisham leads the summer raid, sacking several forts and reaching as far as Dorylaion. A fleet under Maymun ibn Mihran raids Cyprus. [11]
726 13 January Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik leads a winter expedition and captures Caesarea. [10][11]
Summer Maslama leads the summer expedition "of the right", and Asim ibn Abdallah al-Hilali that "of the left". Ibrahim ibn Hisham, governor of Medina, is also recorded as having led an expedition in this year. [11]
Winter Mu'awiya ibn Hisham leads a winter raid, taking many fortresses and captives. [11]
727 Mu'aqiya ibn Hisham leads the summer raid. His lieutenant Abdallah al-Battal captures and razes Gangra. The army continues on to take the fortress Ateous, and unsuccessfully besieges Nicaea. Abdallah ibn Uqba ibn Nafi al-Fihri leads a naval raid. [10][11]
728 Marwan ibn Hisham captures the fortress Semalouos in the Armeniac Theme. [10]
729 Marwan ibn Hisham raids northern Asia Minor, Sa'id ibn Hisham the south, while the coasts are harried by an Egyptian fleet. [10][12]
730 September/October The Arabs, under Mu'awiya ibn Hisham or Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, capture Charsianon in Cappadocia. [10][13]
731 Mu'awiya ibn Hisham is unable to penetrate the Byzantine frontier defences, while a detachment under Abdallah al-Battal suffers a heavy defeat. [10][13]
732 Mu'awiya ibn Hisham raids Paphlagonia and reaches Akroinon before turning back, although his rearguard is annihilated. Sulayman ibn Hisham's raid reaches Caesarea. [10][14]
733 Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and Sulayman ibn Hisham. al-Battal campaigned again alongside Mu'awiya ibn Hisham, raiding as far as Akroinon in Phrygia. A Byzantine army under a certain Constantine tried to confront the Muslims, but al-Battal defeated Constantine and took him prisoner. [10][13]
737 Mu'awiya ibn Hisham leads the southern summer expedition, but dies during the campaign from falling off his horse. [15][16]
738 Sulayman ibn Hisham sacks the fortress of Sideroun ("Iron Fort") in the Pontus, taking many prisoners, including its commander, Eustathios. [15][16]
740 The Arabs assemble the largest post-718 force, reportedly 100,000 men under Sulayman ibn Hisham, to invade Asia Minor. A detachment of 20,000 is heavily defeated by Emperor Leo III in person at the Battle of Akroinon, losing two thirds of its men and its commanders, Abdallah al-Battal and Malik. The remaining invasion forces suffer further losses due to lack of supplies, and the Byzantines take many prisoners. [15][17][18]
741 The Byzantines attack Malatya [19]
742 [20]
743 [20]
755 Constantine V takes Kamacha and Theodosiopolis. Kamacha becomes a Byzantine frontier outpost, while the Christian population of Theodosiopolis is resettled to Thrace. [21][22]
757 Truce and prisoner exchange between Byzantines and Arabs. [22]
766 Failed Arab siege of Kamacha. Half the Muslim army, detached to pillage Cappadocia, is attacked at night and scattered with great loss by the Byzantines. [23][24]
770 Arabs raid and sack Laodicea Combusta. [25]
771 Raids and Byzantine counter-raids in Armenia. [25]
772 Arab siege of Sycaea in the Cibyrrhaeot Theme, Byzantine attempt to stop them fails. Constantine V proposes truce but is rebuffed. [25]
778 The Byzantines under Michael Lachanodrakon seize Ma'rash and defeat an army under Thumama ibn al-Walid. [26][27]
779 The Byzantines raze the fortress city of Hadath. Thumama is replaced by al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba, who leads over 30,000 troops in an invasion of Byzantine territory, but the Byzantines withdraw to well-fortified towns and refuges, until Hasan is forced to turn back due to lack of supplies. [26][28]
780 March– Caliph al-Mahdi takes personal command of this year's campaign. Hadath is refortified, and the Arabs advance up to Arabissus. Mahdi leaves the army in the hands of his son, the future Harun al-Rashid, and of Thumama. Harun raids the Armeniac Theme and captures the fort of Semalouos, while Thumama raids further west into the Thracesian Theme, where he is defeated by Lachanodrakon. [28][9]
781 June– The Arab invasion under Abd al-Kabir is met by the combined forces of the Asia Minor themata and defeated near Caesarea by Lachanodrakon. [9][29]
782 Harun al-Rashid leads as large-scale invasion of Byzantine Asia Minor, with an army numbering allegedly 95,793 men. After crossing the Cilician Gates and reaching Phrygia, the Abbasid forces divide, with a detachment left to besiege Nakoleia, another sent west to raid the Thracesian coast, and the rest under Harun advancing northwest towards Constantinople. Harun reaches Chrysopolis across the Bosporus from the Byzantine capital, and then turns back. Encircled by the Byzantine armies, he manages to gain the upper hand through the defection of Tatzates and forces Empress IRene to agree to a three-year truce and a heavy annual tribute. [9][30]
786 After the expiry of the three-year truce, the Byzantines sack Hadath and Sozopetra. [31][32]
788 September The first great invasion since the accession of Harun al-Rashid culminates in the Battle of Kopidnadon and a heavy defeat for the Byzantines [31][33]
790 An Arab fleet raids Attaleia, the headquarters of the Cibyrrhaeot Theme, and captures its commander, Theophilos [31]
791 September–October Constantine VI, now sole emperor, launches a campaign against Tarsus, but gets no further than the Lycaonian desert before turning back [31]
793 29 July Kamacha is betrayed by its Armenian garrison to Abd al-Malik ibn Salih [31]
October Abd al-Malik's son Abd al-Rahman captures the fortress of Thebasa [31]
794 Autumn The Abbasid invasion force under Sulayman and the Byzantine renegade Elpidius is met with the onset of an early and heavy winter, losing many men to cold. The Arabs are forced to seek terms to be allowed to retreat. [31][34]
795 April–May The Abbasid spring raid under al-Fadl is confronted by Constantine VI, who defeats a small raiding party that had reached the western coastlands. [31]
796 While the Byzantines are engaged with the Bulgarians, the Arabs under Muhammad ibn Mu'awiya raid into Asia Minor and reach Amorium. [31]
797 March Harun al-Rashid leads the spring invasion in person, and Constantine VI sets out to meet him. The eunuch minister Staurakios, fearing that a success would bring Constantine popularity, spreads false rumours if Harun's retreat, so that Constantine abandons the campaign. Harun, unopposed, captures the fortress of al-Safsaf, while Abd al-Malik raids up to Ancyra. [31]
19 August Constantine VI is deposed, imprisoned and blinded by his mother and her associates. Irene proposes a truce to Harun, but her offer is rejected. [35]
798 Spring Abd al-Malik raids as far as the imperial stables at Malagina, while his son Abd al-Rahman raids Lydia up to Ephesus. [36]
Autumn Another Arab raid defeats Paul, the Count of the Opsicians, and captures his camp. [36]
799 Faced with a major Khazar raid into Armenia, Harun accepts Irene's offers of a truce. [36]

9th century

[edit]

Eunuchs began to appear in the military, as well as at court, in the early ‘Abbasid period, often serving on the Byzantine frontier, like Faraj al-Khādim al-Turkī who rebuilt Tarsus in 170/787. The tradition was revived in the post- Samarra period when we find Yāzmān al-Khādim leading raids on Byzantine territory from Tarsus in 270–8/883–91. Eunuchs continued to lead expeditions from Tarsus as late as Thumal al-Khādim in 330/941–2.[37]

Year Datea Event Ref(s)
802 Deposition of Irene of Athens. The new emperor Nikephoros I refuses to continue the annual tribute to the Caliphate. [38][39]
803 Harun al Rashid launches a raid (Venning: under his son Qasim) in retaliation for the cessation of tribute; taking advantage of Nikephoros' preoccupation with the revolt of Bardanes Tourkos, the Arab army captured Heraclea Cybistra before returning on promises of renewed tribute. [40][41]
804 Harun raids Anatolia and defeats Nikephoros at the Battle of Krasos in Phrygia.[42]
805 Outbreak of revolt in Khorasan forces Harun to arrange for a truce; 3,700 Arabs are exchanged with Byzantine prisoners at the river Lamus. Later in the year, Nikephoros breaks the truce and sends troops to attack Melitene and Tarsus, which is sacked. The inhabitants of Cyprus also rebel against the Arab condominium. [43][44]
806 Harun invades Cappadocia with a huge force, reputedly comprising 135,000 men, while a fleet under Humayd raids Cyprus. Harun takes Heraclea Cybistra and its grain stores, as well as the fortress of Tyana, where he builds a mosque. He is persuaded to withdraw only after the payment of 50,000 dinars and a pledge not to rebuild the captured forts. [45][46]
807 The Abbasid general Yazid is dispatched to rad Anatolia, but is killed near the Cilician Gates. Another larger raid in July is confronted by Nikephoros, but the ensuing battle is indecisive. The Abbasid fleet under Humayd raids as far as the Peloponnese, where it renders support to a short-lived revolt of the local Slavs. On its return, it sacks Rhodes and Myra. [47]
808 The Byzantines retake control of the Cilician Gates. The growing rebellion in Khorasan forces Harun to conclude a truce, and another prisoner exchange takes place at Podandos. [48]
809 Death of Harun and succession of al-Amin, which is disputed by al-Ma'mun. The ensuing civil war lasts until 819 and eases pressure on the Byzantines for the next few years, allowing Nikephoros I to shift his focus against the Bulgars. [49][50][51]
811 Surprise Arab raid succeeds in sacking Euchaita, the capital of the Armeniac Theme. [52]
812 August roops of the Anatolic Theme under the future emperor Leo the Armenian defeat an Arab raid under Thabit ibn Nasr, Emir of Tarsus.[53]
814–829 Virtual cessation of major hostilities, with some exceptions, although no formal treaty is signed. [54]
817 Taking advantage of rebellions within the Caliphate, and in response to attacks on Christian sanctuaries in Jerusalem, Leo V the Armenian issues a trade boycott and takes and rebuilds the fortress of Kamacha on the upper Euphrates, while a fleet raids Egypt. [55][56]
821 Taking advantage of the outbreak of the revolt of Thomas the Slav, Arab troops raid southern Anatolia. Thomas launches counter-raids into Abbasid territory before coming to terms with the Caliph: the Abbasids recognize him as emperor, probably in exchange for territorial concessions and/or a payment of tribute, and even allow him to be crowned at Antioch by the Greek patriarch of the city. [57][58]
822 Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani recovers control of Kamacha. [59]
824 A Byzantine fleet raids the Syrian coast, while an army sacks the fortress of Sozopetra. [60]
827
828
829 Beginning of the influx of Khurramite refugees into Byzantium.[61] Defection of Manuel the Armenian to the Caliphate.[62]
830 Al-Ma'mun campaigns in person in Cappadocia and seizes the fortress of Koron. Manuel defects back to Byzantium. [63]
831 Theophilos and Manuel the Armenian defeat an Arab raid near Charsianon in spring, allowing Theophilos to celebrate a triumph. In retaliation, al-Ma'mun leads a force that captures Heraclea Cybistra. Ma'mun, his brother al-Mu'tasim and his son al-Abbas raid the region. Abbas defeats Theophilos in a skirmish. [64][65]
832 Abbas fortifies Tyana
833 Death of al-Ma'mun
834 Entry of Theophobos with more Khurramites in Byzantine service
835 The Emir of Malatya, Umar al-Aqta, raids in Anatolia and defeats Theophilos[66]
837 Theophilos sacks Sozopetra and Samosata
838 Battle of Anzen, sack of undefended Ancyra and siege and sack of Amorium
839
840 A Byzantine expedition to Abasgia is intercepted and probably defeated by the Arabs en route. (from Bar Hebraeus, probably 839:) The Abbasid generals Abu Sa'id and Bashir lead a raid into Cappadocia in autumn and inflict a costly defeat on an army led by Theophobos. [67]
841 Abu Sa'id raids Cappadocia but the Byzantines repel and pursue him back to Cilicia, retaking the prisoners and the plunder taken back. Abu Sa'id repeats the raid after a few months and is again thrown back, with the Byzantines capturing Marash/Germanikeia in the process. A truce is concluded between Theophilos and Mu'tasim. The strategos of the Thracesians Constantine Kontomytes routs a raid of Cretan Saracens at Mount Latros. [68]
843/844 Beginning of the persecution of the Paulicians by the Byzantine state. Many flee to the Caliphate and under their leader Karbeas found a principality centred around Tephrike.
844 The Emir of Malatya, Umar al-Aqta, launches a raid that reaches Malagina in Bithynia, and defeats the emperor Theophilos in open battle.[69]
845 Fall of Motya in western Sicily to the Arabs.[69] Peace with the Caliphate is concluded and 4,000 prisoners exchanged at the river Lamos. An attempted raid over the Taurus Mountains by the emir of Tarsus, Ahmed, is thwarted by adverse weather in November.[69]
848 Arab fleet raids the Adriatic and sacks Ragusa.[70]
849 Leontini in eastern Sicily falls to the Arabs. [71]
850 Outbreak of revolt in Armenia against Arab rule. [71]
851 Byzantine forces come to the assistance of the Armenian rebels and retake Kamacha. [71]
852 Byzantine and Armenian forces in Taron defeat and kill the emir of Armenia Yusuf ibn Abu Sa'id al-Marwazi in battle (March). [71]
853 A Byzantine fleet launches a surprise raid on the Egyptian coast and sacks Damietta, seizing great store of arms and provisions destined for Crete. [72]
855 A Byzantine army raids Cilicia and sacks Anazarbus.[72] The Armenian revolt is suppressed by the Turkish general Bugha al-Kabir. [73]
856 Petronas raids the region of Samosata and Amida on the upper Euphrates and proceeds to raid the Paulician state at Tephrike. [73]
857 The strategic fortress of Cephaloedium in Sicily surrenders to the Arabs. [74]
859 Emperor Michael III and his uncle Bardas lead an army and besiege Samosata, but without success. Negotiations with the Arabs for a truce and prisoner exchange are broken off after the Arab garrison of the fortress of Loulon revolts. [75]
860 In March, Byzantine attempts to get the garrison at Loulon to switch sides fail as the garrison arrests the Byzantine envoy. A truce is agreed and prisoners (1,000 Christians for 2,000 Muslims) are exchanged.[75] A summer campaign by Michael III to the East is forced to turn back due to a sudden Rus' raid on the Bosporus. At the same time, Cretan Saracens enter the Marmara Sea from the south and raid Proconnesus.[75] The Emir of Malatya, Umar al-Aqta, invades Cappadocia, and defeats Michael III at Chonarion.[75] His raid is followed by another invasion by Ali ibn Yahya al-Armani from Cilicia, and a naval expeditionthat sacked the capital of the Cibyrrhaeot Theme and major Byzantine naval base, Attaleia.[76]
861 Murder of Caliph Mutawwakil. Beginning of factional strife and constant rebellions in the Caliphate
863 Ali al-Armani, newly appointed governor of Armenia, and Umar al-Aqta launch a combined raid into Cappadocia. While Ali and his army turn back near Tyana, Umar presses on, defeating Michael III at Marj al-Usquf ("Bishop's Meadow") and continuing his raid until he reaches Amisos on the Black Sea. On its return, the Arab army is encircled by forces from all themes and annihilated at the Battle of Lalakaon on 3 September. Umar is killed while his son escapes, only to be captured shortly after.[77] The Byzantines go into the offensive in Armenia, and kill Ali in battle.[78]
866 A large-scale expedition against Crete sets sail from the capital early in April, to be commanded by the Caesar Bardas. It is abandoned after Bardas's murder on 21 April by Michael III's favourite Basil the Macedonian. [79]
868 Paulicians under Chrysocheir raid across Asia Minor and reach Ephesus, where they desecrate the shrine of St John. A Byzantine fleet under Niketas Ooryphas relieves the fifteen-month-long siege of Ragusa by the Sicilian Saracens[80] and restores Byzantine control over Dalmatia.
869 Embassy of Peter the Sicilian to Tephrike fails due to the Paulicians' exorbitant demands. [80]
871 Basil I the Macedonian defeats the Paulicians. Egypt becomes de facto independent from the Abbasid Caliphate under Ahmad ibn Tulun, the founder of the Tulunid dynasty. [81]
872
883 The new Emir of Tarsus, Yazaman al-Khadim, defeats a Byzantine army in a surprise night attack and kills its leader, the Domestic of the Schools Kestas Styppeiotes.
885 (ca.) A large naval raid against Euripos (Chalkis by Yazaman al-Khadim is beaten off by the strategos of Hellas, Oineiates, through the use of Greek fire.
886 According to al-Tabari, Yazaman al-Khadim leads the summer raid into Anatolia
887
888 Yazaman al-Khadim launches a naval raid
889
890
891 Yazaman al-Khadim dies of his wounds during a raid against the Byzantine fort of Salandu (?Tzamandos)
892

10th century

[edit]

The best known of all the military eunuchs was undoubtedly Mu’nis al-Khādim, al-Muqtadir’s main military commander.[82] Fortunately this is supplemented by the work of Abū ‘Alī Miskawayh, whose Tajārib al-umam continues the story in much greater detail....The chronicle has its heroes and its villains and a clear philosophy of government. The main hero is ‘Alī b.‘Īsā, ‘the good vizier’, the classic image of the competent, honest, pious and forthright administrator. Along with him is his chief ally, the military leader Mu’nis al-Khādim (the Eunuch), who is again portrayed as competent, honest and loyal to the Caliph.[83]

Year Datea Event Ref(s)
900 (spring)The Byzantines campaign against Tarsus, and defeat and capture its emir in battle. (unknown) Caliph al-Mu'tadid scuttles the Tarsian fleet following a failed revolt against Abbasid rule. Emperor Leo VI forms the theme of Mesopotamia out of Armenian principality annexed to the empire. [84]
901 (early) A Syrian fleet under Damian of Tarsus sacks Demetrias in Greece, while Sicilian fleet takes Rhegium in Calabria. In the East, Leo Lalakon raids into western Armenia, while another force lands on the Cilician coats and raids up to the Euphrates. [84]
902 The Domestic of the Schools Leo Katakalon sacks Theodoriopolis. The Arabs capture Taormina in Sicily. [84]
904 A large Byzantine expedition advances to Hadath but turns back after news of a Muslim fleet approaching Constantinople. The latter, led by Leo of Tripoli, turns west and sacks Thessalonica, taking the inhabitants as slaves. Later in the year Andronikos Doukas defeats the Arabs of Tarsus near Marash. [85]
905 Prisoner exchange [85]
906 6 October Himerios wins his first (defensive) victory against an Arab fleet [86]
907
908
909 September The Arabs launch a raid from Tarsus, under Munis al-Khadim [87]
Between Sept. 909 and Sept 910 Himerios raids the Syrian coast and captured Laodicea and the fortress of al-Qubba [86]
910 summer Arab raid under al-Qasim ibn Sima [88]
911 Himerios leads a large-scale attempt (177 ships, 47,000 rowers and troops) to subdue the Emirate of Crete. On his return (October 911 or 912), he is defeated off Chios by Leo of Tripoli and Damian of Tarsus [88]
or 912 Damian of Tarsus raids Cyprus for four months in retaliation for the stay of Himerios and his fleet there [88]
900

11th century

[edit]
Year Datea Event Ref(s)
1000

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1097.
  2. ^ a b c d e Treadgold 1997, p. 339.
  3. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 341.
  4. ^ Lilie 1976, p. 116.
  5. ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 116–117.
  6. ^ Lilie 1976, p. 117.
  7. ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 118–119.
  8. ^ a b c d Brooks 1923, p. 119.
  9. ^ a b c d Brooks 1923, p. 124.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Brooks 1923, p. 120.
  11. ^ a b c d e Blankinship 1994, p. 120.
  12. ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 121.
  13. ^ a b c Blankinship 1994, p. 162.
  14. ^ Blankinship 1994, pp. 162–163.
  15. ^ a b c Brooks 1923, p. 121.
  16. ^ a b Blankinship 1994, p. 169.
  17. ^ Blankinship 1994, pp. 169–170.
  18. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 354–355.
  19. ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 200.
  20. ^ a b Blankinship 1994, pp. 200–201.
  21. ^ Lilie 1976, p. 165.
  22. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 362.
  23. ^ Brooks 1923, p. 122.
  24. ^ Kennedy 2001, pp. 106–107.
  25. ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 365.
  26. ^ a b Brooks 1923, p. 123.
  27. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 33–34.
  28. ^ a b Treadgold 1988, p. 34.
  29. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 66–67.
  30. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 67–70.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Brooks 1923, p. 125.
  32. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 78–79.
  33. ^ Treadgold 1988, p. 91.
  34. ^ Treadgold 1991, p. 103.
  35. ^ Brooks 1923, pp. 125–126.
  36. ^ a b c Brooks 1923, p. 126.
  37. ^ Kennedy (2001), p. 158
  38. ^ Bury (1912), pp. 249–250
  39. ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 425
  40. ^ Bury (1912), p. 250
  41. ^ Venning (2006), p. 229
  42. ^ Venning (2006), p. 230
  43. ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 425–426
  44. ^ Venning (2006), p. 230
  45. ^ Bury (1912), p. 250
  46. ^ Venning (2006), p. 231
  47. ^ Venning (2006), p. 232
  48. ^ Venning (2006), p. 232
  49. ^ Bury (1912), p. 251
  50. ^ Kennedy (2001), p. 108
  51. ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 427ff.
  52. ^ Venning (2006), p. 234
  53. ^ Venning (2006), p. 236
  54. ^ Bury (1912), p. 251
  55. ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 433
  56. ^ Venning (2006), p. 239
  57. ^ Bury (1912), pp. 87–88
  58. ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 434–435
  59. ^ Venning (2006), p. 242
  60. ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 436
  61. ^ Bury (1912), p. 252
  62. ^ Venning (2006), p. 245
  63. ^ Venning (2006), pp. 245–246
  64. ^ Venning (2006), p. 246
  65. ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 437
  66. ^ Venning (2006), p. 248
  67. ^ Venning (2006), pp. 251–252
  68. ^ Venning (2006), p. 252
  69. ^ a b c Venning (2006), p. 254
  70. ^ Venning (2006), p. 255
  71. ^ a b c d Venning (2006), p. 256
  72. ^ a b Venning (2006), p. 257
  73. ^ a b Venning (2006), p. 258
  74. ^ Venning (2006), p. 259
  75. ^ a b c d Venning (2006), p. 260
  76. ^ Whittow (1996), p. 310
  77. ^ Haldon (2001), pp. 83-89
  78. ^ Whittow (1996), p. 311
  79. ^ Venning (2006), p. 264
  80. ^ a b Venning (2006), p. 271
  81. ^ Venning (2006), p. 273
  82. ^ Kennedy (2001), pp. 158-159
  83. ^ Kennedy (2001), p. 159
  84. ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 466.
  85. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 467.
  86. ^ a b Tougher 1997, p. 191.
  87. ^ Tougher 1997, pp. 191–192.
  88. ^ a b c Tougher 1997, p. 192.

Sources

[edit]

[[Category:Byzantine–Arab Wars]] [[Category:Historical timelines]]

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