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This is a transclusion of the "History" section of the United States article, for easier viewing and editing. This is not a userspace draft.

Main article: History of the United States
For a topical guide, see Outline of the history of the United States.

Indigenous peoples

[edit]
Further information: Native Americans in the United States and Pre-Columbian era
Cliff Palace, a settlement of ancestors of the Native American Pueblo peoples in present-day Montezuma County, Colorado, built between c. 1200 and 1275[1]

The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia across the Bering land bridge about 12,000 years ago;[2][3] the Clovis culture, which appeared around 11,000 BC, is believed to be the first widespread culture in the Americas.[4][5] Over time, indigenous North American cultures grew increasingly sophisticated, and some, such as the Mississippian culture, developed agriculture, architecture, and complex societies.[6] In the post-archaic period, the Mississippian cultures were located in the midwestern, eastern, and southern regions, and the Algonquian in the Great Lakes region and along the Eastern Seaboard, while the Hohokam culture and Ancestral Puebloans inhabited the southwest.[7] Native population estimates of what is now the United States before the arrival of European immigrants range from around 500,000[8][9] to nearly 10 million.[9][10]

European settlement and conflict (1607–1765)

[edit]
Main articles: Colonial history of the United States and Colonial American military history
See also: European colonization of the Americas
The 1750 colonial possessions of Britain (in pink and purple), France (in blue), and Spain (in orange) in present-day Canada and the United States

Christopher Columbus began exploring the Caribbean for Spain in 1492, leading to Spanish-speaking settlements and missions from Puerto Rico and Florida to New Mexico and California.[11][12][13] France established its own settlements along the Great Lakes, Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico.[14] British colonization of the East Coast began with the Virginia Colony (1607) and Plymouth Colony (1620).[15][16] The Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut established precedents for representative self-governance and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies.[17][18] While European settlers in what is now the United States experienced conflicts with Native Americans, they also engaged in trade, exchanging European tools for food and animal pelts.[19][a] Relations ranged from close cooperation to warfare and massacres. The colonial authorities often pursued policies that forced Native Americans to adopt European lifestyles, including conversion to Christianity.[23][24] Along the eastern seaboard, settlers trafficked African slaves through the Atlantic slave trade.[25]

The original Thirteen Colonies[b] that would later found the United States were administered by Great Britain,[26] and had local governments with elections open to most white male property owners.[27][28] The colonial population grew rapidly, eclipsing Native American populations;[29] by the 1770s, the natural increase of the population was such that only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas.[30] The colonies' distance from Britain allowed for the development of self-governance,[31] and the First Great Awakening, a series of Christian revivals, fueled colonial interest in religious liberty.[32]

For a century, the American colonists had been providing their own troops and materiel in conflicts with indigenous peoples and Britain's colonial rivals, especially France, and the Americans had begun to develop a sense of self-defense and self-reliance separate from Britain. The French and Indian War (1754–1763) took on new significance for all North American colonists after Parliament under William Pitt the Elder concluded that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a "world war". The British colonies' position as an integral part of the British Empire became more apparent during the war, with British military and civilian officials becoming a more significant presence in American life.

The war increased a sense of American identity as well. Men who otherwise never left their own colony now traveled across the continent to fight alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds but who were no less "American". British officers trained American officers for battle, most notably George Washington; these officers would lend their skills and expertise to the colonists' cause during the American Revolutionary War to come. In addition, colonial legislatures and officials found it necessary to cooperate intensively in pursuit of a coordinated, continent-wide military effort.[33] Finally, deteriorating relations between the British military establishment and the colonists, relations that were already less than positive, set the stage for further distrust and dislike of British troops.

American Revolution and the early republic (1765–1800)

[edit]
Main articles: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War
Further information: History of the United States (1776–1789) and History of the United States (1789–1815)
See caption
Declaration of Independence, a portrait by John Trumbull depicting the Committee of Five presenting the draft of the Declaration to the Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, in Philadelphia

Following their victory in the French and Indian War, Britain began to assert greater control over local colonial affairs, resulting in colonial political resistance; one of the primary colonial grievances was a denial of their rights as Englishmen, particularly the right to representation in the British government that taxed them. To demonstrate their dissatisfaction and resolve, the First Continental Congress met in 1774 and passed the Continental Association, a colonial boycott of British goods that proved effective. The British attempt to then disarm the colonists resulted in the 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, igniting the American Revolutionary War. At the Second Continental Congress, the colonies appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and created a committee that named Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration of Independence. Two days after passing the Lee Resolution to create an independent nation the Declaration was adopted on July 4, 1776.[34] The political values of the American Revolution included liberty, inalienable individual rights; and the sovereignty of the people;[35] supporting republicanism and rejecting monarchy, aristocracy, and all hereditary political power; civic virtue; and vilification of political corruption.[36] The Founding Fathers of the United States, who included George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay, James Madison, Thomas Paine, John Adams and many others, were inspired by Greco-Roman, Renaissance, and Enlightenment philosophies and ideas.[37][38]

The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781 and established a decentralized government that operated until 1789.[34] After the British surrender at the siege of Yorktown in 1781 American sovereignty was internationally recognized by the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which the U.S. gained territory stretching west to the Mississippi River, north to present-day Canada, and south to Spanish Florida.[39] The Northwest Ordinance (1787) established the precedent by which the country's territory would expand with the admission of new states, rather than the expansion of existing states.[40] The U.S. Constitution was drafted at the 1787 Constitutional Convention to overcome the limitations of the Articles. It went into effect in 1789, creating a federal republic governed by three separate branches that together ensured a system of checks and balances.[41] George Washington was elected the country's first president under the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights was adopted in 1791 to allay skeptics' concerns about the power of the more centralized government.[42][43] His resignation as commander-in-chief after the Revolutionary War and his later refusal to run for a third term as the country's first president established a precedent for the supremacy of civil authority in the United States and the peaceful transfer of power, respectively.[44][45]

Westward expansion and Civil War (1800–1865)

[edit]
Further information: History of the United States (1815–1849) and History of the United States (1849–1865)
Historical territorial expansion of the United States
Division of the states during the American Civil War:
  Union states
  Border states
  Confederate states
  Territories

The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 from France nearly doubled the territory of the United States.[46][47] Lingering issues with Britain remained, leading to the War of 1812, which was fought to a draw.[48][49] Spain ceded Florida and its Gulf Coast territory in 1819.[50] In the late 18th century, American settlers began to expand westward, many with a sense of manifest destiny.[51][52] The Missouri Compromise attempted to balance the desire of northern states to prevent the expansion of slavery into new territories with that of southern states to extend it, admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. With the exception of Missouri, it also prohibited slavery in all lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36°30′ parallel.[53] As Americans expanded further into land inhabited by Native Americans, the federal government often applied policies of Indian removal or assimilation.[54][55] The Trail of Tears (1830–1850) was a U.S. government policy that forcibly removed and displaced most Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River to lands far to the west. These and earlier organized displacements prompted a long series of American Indian Wars west of the Mississippi.[56][57] The Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845,[58] and the 1846 Oregon Treaty led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest.[59] Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California, Nevada, Utah, and much of present-day Colorado and the American Southwest.[51][60] The California Gold Rush of 1848–1849 spurred a huge migration of white settlers to the Pacific coast, leading to even more confrontations with Native populations. One of the most violent, the California genocide of thousands of Native inhabitants, lasted into the early 1870s,[61] just as additional western territories and states were created.[62]

During the colonial period, slavery had been legal in the American colonies, though the practice began to be significantly questioned during the American Revolution.[63] States in the North enacted abolition laws,[64] though support for slavery strengthened in Southern states, as inventions such as the cotton gin made the institution increasingly profitable for Southern elites.[65][66][67] This sectional conflict regarding slavery culminated in the American Civil War (1861–1865).[68][69] Eleven slave states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America, while the other states remained in the Union.[70][71] War broke out in April 1861 after the Confederates bombarded Fort Sumter.[72][73] After the January 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, many freed slaves joined the Union army.[74] The war began to turn in the Union's favor following the 1863 Siege of Vicksburg and Battle of Gettysburg, and the Confederacy surrendered in 1865 after the Union's victory in the Battle of Appomattox Court House.[75] The Reconstruction era followed the war. After the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, Reconstruction Amendments were passed to protect the rights of African Americans. National infrastructure, including transcontinental telegraph and railroads, spurred growth in the American frontier.[76]

Post–Civil War era (1865–1917)

[edit]
Main article: History of the United States (1865–1917)
An Edison Studios film showing immigrants arriving at Ellis Island in New York Harbor, a major point of entry for European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries[77][78]

From 1865 through 1917 an unprecedented stream of immigrants arrived in the United States, including 24.4 million from Europe.[79] Most came through the port of New York City, and New York City and other large cities on the East Coast became home to large Jewish, Irish, and Italian populations, while many Germans and Central Europeans moved to the Midwest. At the same time, about one million French Canadians migrated from Quebec to New England.[80] During the Great Migration, millions of African Americans left the rural South for urban areas in the North.[81] Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867.[82]

The Compromise of 1877 effectively ended Reconstruction and white supremacists took local control of Southern politics.[83][84] African Americans endured a period of heightened, overt racism following Reconstruction, a time often called the nadir of American race relations.[85][86] A series of Supreme Court decisions, including Plessy v. Ferguson, emptied the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments of their force, allowing Jim Crow laws in the South to remain unchecked, sundown towns in the Midwest, and segregation in communities across the country, which would be reinforced by the policy of redlining later adopted by the federal Home Owners' Loan Corporation.[87]

An explosion of technological advancement accompanied by the exploitation of cheap immigrant labor[88] led to rapid economic expansion during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, allowing the United States to outpace the economies of England, France, and Germany combined.[89][90] This fostered the amassing of power by a few prominent industrialists, largely by their formation of trusts and monopolies to prevent competition.[91] Tycoons led the nation's expansion in the railroad, petroleum, and steel industries. The United States emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry.[92] These changes were accompanied by significant increases in economic inequality, slum conditions, and social unrest, creating the environment for labor unions to begin to flourish.[93][94][95] This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which was characterized by significant reforms.[96][97]

Pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy; the islands were annexed in 1898. That same year, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam were ceded to the U.S. by Spain after the latter's defeat in the Spanish–American War. (The Philippines was granted full independence from the U.S. on July 4, 1946, following World War II. Puerto Rico and Guam have remained U.S. territories.)[98] American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the Second Samoan Civil War.[99] The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917.[100]

Rise as a superpower (1917–1945)

[edit]
Main article: History of the United States (1917–1945)
The Trinity nuclear test in 1945, part of the Manhattan Project and the first detonation of a nuclear weapon. The World Wars permanently ended the country's policy of isolationism and left it as a superpower.

The United States entered World War I alongside the Allies of World War I, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers.[101] In 1920, a constitutional amendment granted nationwide women's suffrage.[102] During the 1920s and '30s, radio for mass communication and the invention of early television transformed communications nationwide.[103] The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered the Great Depression, which President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded to with the New Deal, a series of sweeping programs and public works projects combined with financial reforms and regulations. All were intended to protect against future economic depressions.[104][105]

Initially neutral during World War II, the U.S. began supplying war materiel to the Allies of World War II in March 1941 and entered the war in December after the Empire of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.[106][107] The U.S. developed the first nuclear weapons and used them against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, ending the war.[108][109] The United States was one of the "Four Policemen" who met to plan the post-war world, alongside the United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China.[110][111] The U.S. emerged relatively unscathed from the war, with even greater economic power and international political influence.[112]

Cold War (1945–1991)

[edit]
Main article: Cold War
Further information: History of the United States (1945–1964), History of the United States (1964–1980), and History of the United States (1980–1991)
Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty at the White House in 1987.

After World War II, the United States entered the Cold War, where geopolitical tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union led the two countries to dominate world affairs.[113][114][115] The U.S. engaged in regime change against governments perceived to be aligned with the Soviet Union, and competed in the Space Race, culminating in the first crewed Moon landing in 1969.[116][117] Domestically, the U.S. experienced economic growth, urbanization, and population growth following World War II.[118] The civil rights movement emerged, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming a prominent leader in the early 1960s.[119] The Great Society plan of President Lyndon Johnson's administration resulted in groundbreaking and broad-reaching laws, policies and a constitutional amendment to counteract some of the worst effects of lingering institutional racism.[120] The counterculture movement in the U.S. brought significant social changes, including the liberalization of attitudes toward recreational drug use and sexuality.[121][122] It also encouraged open defiance of the military draft (leading to the end of conscription in 1973) and wide opposition to U.S. intervention in Vietnam (with the U.S. totally withdrawing in 1975).[123] A societal shift in the roles of women was partly responsible for the large increase in female labor participation during the 1970s, and by 1985 the majority of American women aged 16 and older were employed.[124] The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which marked the end of the Cold War and solidified the position of the U.S. as the world's sole superpower.[125][126][127][128]

Contemporary (1991–present)

[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1991–2008) and History of the United States (2008–present)
The Twin Towers in New York City during the September 11 attacks in 2001
The January 6 United States Capitol attack in 2021

The 1990s saw the longest recorded economic expansion in American history, a dramatic decline in U.S. crime rates, and advances in technology. Throughout this decade, technological innovations such as the World Wide Web, the evolution of the Pentium microprocessor in accordance with Moore's law, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, the first gene therapy trial, and cloning either emerged in the U.S. or were improved upon there. The Human Genome Project was formally launched in 1990, while Nasdaq became the first stock market in the United States to trade online in 1998.[129]

In the Gulf War of 1991, an American-led international coalition of states expelled an Iraqi invasion force that had occupied neighboring Kuwait.[130] The September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001 by the pan-Islamist militant organization al-Qaeda led to the war on terror, and subsequent military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq.[131][132] The cultural impact of the attacks was profound and long-lasting.

The U.S. housing bubble culminated in 2007 with the Great Recession, the largest economic contraction since the Great Depression.[133] Coming to a head in the 2010s, political polarization in the country increased between liberal and conservative factions.[134][135][136] This polarization was capitalized upon in the January 2021 Capitol attack,[137] when a mob of insurrectionists[138] entered the U.S. Capitol and sought to prevent the peaceful transfer of power[139] in an attempted self-coup d'état.[140]

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    • Castañeda, Ernesto; Jenks, Daniel (April 17, 2023). Costa, Bruno Ferreira; Parton, Nigel (eds.). "January 6th and De-Democratization in the United States". Social Sciences. 12 (4). MDPI: 238. doi:10.3390/socsci12040238. ISSN 2076-0760. What the United States went through on January 6th was an attempt at a self-coup, where Trump would use force to stay as head of state even if abandoning democratic practices in the U.S. Some advised Trump to declare martial law to create a state of emergency and use that as an excuse to stay in power.
    • Eisen, Norman; Ayer, Donald; Perry, Joshua; Bookbinder, Noah; Perry, E. Danya (2022-06-06). Trump on Trial: A Guide to the January 6 Hearings and the Question of Criminality (Report). Brookings Institution. Retrieved December 16, 2023. [Trump] tried to delegitimize the election results by disseminating a series of far fetched and evidence-free claims of fraud. Meanwhile, with a ring of close confidants, Trump conceived and implemented unprecedented schemes to – in his own words – "overturn" the election outcome. Among the results of this "Big Lie" campaign were the terrible events of January 6, 2021 – an inflection point in what we now understand was nothing less than an attempted coup.
    • Eastman v Thompson, et al., 8:22-cv-00099-DOC-DFM Document 260, 44 (S.D. Cal. May 28, 2022) ("Dr. Eastman and President Trump launched a campaign to overturn a democratic election, an action unprecedented in American history. Their campaign was not confined to the ivory tower – it was a coup in search of a legal theory. The plan spurred violent attacks on the seat of our nation's government, led to the deaths of several law enforcement officers, and deepened public distrust in our political process... If Dr. Eastman and President Trump's plan had worked, it would have permanently ended the peaceful transition of power, undermining American democracy and the Constitution. If the country does not commit to investigating and pursuing accountability for those responsible, the Court fears January 6 will repeat itself.").
    • Graham, David A. (January 6, 2021). "This Is a Coup". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 6, 2021. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
    • Musgrave, Paul (January 6, 2021). "This Is a Coup. Why Were Experts So Reluctant to See It Coming?". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on January 6, 2021. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
    • Solnit, Rebecca (January 6, 2021). "Call it what it was: a coup attempt". The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
    • Coleman, Justine (January 6, 2021). "GOP lawmaker on violence at Capitol: 'This is a coup attempt'". The Hill. Archived from the original on January 6, 2021. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
    • Jacobson, Louis (January 6, 2021). "Is this a coup? Here's some history and context to help you decide". PolitiFact. Retrieved January 7, 2021. A good case can be made that the storming of the Capitol qualifies as a coup. It's especially so because the rioters entered at precisely the moment when the incumbent's loss was to be formally sealed, and they succeeded in stopping the count.
    • Barry, Dan; Frenkel, Sheera (January 7, 2021). "'Be There. Will Be Wild!': Trump All but Circled the Date". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2021-12-28. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
    • Duignan, Brian (2021-08-04). "January 6 U.S. Capitol attack". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2023-01-17. Retrieved 2021-09-22. Because its object was to prevent a legitimate president-elect from assuming office, the attack was widely regarded as an insurrection or attempted coup d'état.


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