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Lithium-ion Battery

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See also: Lithium-ion battery

Uses

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Li-ion batteries provide lightweight, high energy density power sources for a variety of devices. To power larger devices, such as electric cars, connecting many small batteries in a parallel circuit is more effective and more efficient than connecting a single large battery. Such devices include:

Telecommunications

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Li-ion batteries are used in telecommunications applications. Secondary non-aqueous lithium batteries provide reliable backup power to load equipment located in a network environment of a typical telecommunications service provider. Li-ion batteries compliant with specific technical criteria are recommended for deployment in the Outside Plant (OSP) at locations such as Controlled Environmental Vaults (CEVs), Electronic Equipment Enclosures (EEEs), and huts, and in uncontrolled structures such as cabinets. In such applications, li-ion battery users require detailed, battery-specific hazardous material information, plus appropriate fire-fighting procedures, to meet regulatory requirements and to protect employees and surrounding equipment.

Electric Vehicles

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A primary application of lithium-ion batteries is in electric vehicles. The role of lithium ion batteries aids in transitioning to a clean power source that reduces carbon emissions. Traditional internal combustion engines are widely used today with more than 1 billion cars using fuel and gasoline.[1] Emissions from burning gasoline and diesel release toxic components into the air such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxides, formaldehyde, benzene and more, [2] causing air pollution and global warming. [3]

The BMW i3 is an all electric vehicle powered by a 42.2 kWh lithium-ion battery pack. [4]

In an EV, the electric motor is powered by a battery pack, and the car does not emit any greenhouse gases. [5] Lithium-ion batteries, due to their high energy density, have been used to power hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and all electric vehicles. By 2025, it is estimated that 20% of new cars being sold worldwide will be electric vehicles. [6] The percentage should rise to 40% by 2030, and by 2040, all new cars being sold will be electric. [6] Jaguar will convert its car line-up to all electric by 2025, [7] BMW's Mini series by 2030, [7] and Toyota by 2040. [8] The increase in production of electric vehicles will require a larger use of lithium-ion batteries. Tesla uses all lithium-ion and lithium-iron phosphate chemistries for their batteries as a power source for their electric vehicles. [9] The electric vehicle industry generates a substantial demand for lithium-ion batteries, contributing to their widespread use.

Aerospace

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The Juno space probe was sent into outer space to help NASA researchers analyze the origins and evolution of Jupiter. Data of atmospheric properties, magnetic and gravitational fields, and the magnetosphere on Jupiter were collected and transmitted to Earth.

There are many opportunities to utilize batteries in outer space for rovers, satellites, and spacecraft. Space companies utilize rechargeable lithium-ion cells alongside photovoltaics (solar energy) and radioisotopes to generate power. [10] When the Sun is not visible from a spacecraft, batteries are used as an alternative energy source. The Phoenix Lander in 2007 used lithium-ion batteries, recharged by a solar array. These batteries sustained the 1200 W peak power demand of rovers. [10] Important to note is that the temperatures in space are exceedingly low, which can render batteries that operate under Earth-like temperatures unusable. Near Earth, the outer space temperature is around 10°C, and distant parts can range from 0 to -273°C. [10] Thus, an RHU, a radioisotope heating unit, or an RTG can be used to heat up the device containing the batteries in order to simulate Earth-like conditions for operation. [10]

The two 55Ah lithium-ion batteries [11] on the solar array powering Juno will allow it to stay active until 2025 or until the spacecraft’s demise. [10] The Mars Odyssey, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and MAVEN missions are still currently operating utilizing rechargeable batteries. [10] The European Space Agency launched PROBA (Project for On-board Autonomy) with lithium-ion cells in 2001, and it is still operational today. [10] The lithium-ion chemistry is also capable of a larger cycle life, allowing longer duration space ventures for capsules and devices. The current lithium-ion batteries in space have lasted 11 years with minimal degradation. [10] This proves especially useful with satellites as they are in constant orbit, facing away from the sun, requiring battery use.

Environmental Impacts

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See also: Lithium § Environmental issues

With the transition to electric vehicles and the Biden administration’s announcement in August 2021 that half of all vehicle sales should be all battery-electric, plug-in hybrid, and fuel-cell electric by 2030, [12] the amount of lithium needed for cell manufacturing has risen. The projected number of electric vehicles on the roads in the United States 2030 will be 18.7 million, [13] and each electric vehicle utilizes a battery pack with 8 kg of lithium, 35 kg on nickel, 14 kg of cobalt, and 20 kg of manganese. [14] At the end of 2020, a little over 1.3 million battery-electric vehicles were being driven in the United States. [15] Considering the amount of electric vehicles already driven, around 330,000 tons of lithium will be needed. The annual lithium production is 56,000 tons with 21,000 kilotons of known lithium reserves. [16] In order to support the electric vehicle transition, increasing amounts of lithium will have to be mined.

Australia, Chile, China, and Argentina are the world’s largest suppliers of lithium with 51,000 tons, 16,000 tons, 8,000 tons, and 6,200 tons produced in 2018, respectively. [17] The process of mining lithium in Chile and Argentina involves salt deserts. The saltwater of underground lakes contains lithium; this water is brought to the surface to be evaporated in basins, isolating lithium. The saline solution product is refined until suitable for battery use. [17] In Australia, lithium is produced from ore mines. Natural rock or sediment is extracted and crushed, then treated to separate the metal from ore. [18] Both processes with ore mines and salt deserts can have damaging impacts on the environment. [17]

Bolivia's Uyuni Salt Flat is shown here, which is a lithium mining site. Geologists estimate it could be the world's second largest deposit of lithium. [19]

As well, extraction of lithium, nickel, and cobalt, manufacture of solvents, and mining byproducts present significant environmental and health hazards. Lithium extraction can be fatal to aquatic life due to water pollution. It is known to cause surface water contamination, drinking water contamination, respiratory problems, ecosystem degradation and landscape damage. It also leads to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions (1.9 million liters per ton of lithium). Massive byproduct generation of lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems, such as large amounts of magnesium and lime waste.

Manufacturing a kg of Li-ion battery takes about 67 megajoule (MJ) of energy. The global warming potential of lithium-ion batteries manufacturing strongly depends on the energy source used in mining and manufacturing operations. Various estimates range from 62 to 140 kg CO2-equivalents per kWh. Effective recycling can reduce the carbon footprint of the production significantly.

Mining Lithium

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The Ganzizhou Rongda Lithium mine is located in eastern Tibet and is owned by China for lithium extraction. [20] The leakage of toxic chemicals from the mine into the Liqi River caused dead fish to be found in May 2016. [21] Cow and yak carcasses were found in the river as well as these animals drank the contaminated water. [21] This is one of the three times this has occurred in seven years due to mining activity. [21] The mine was closed after an a similar incident in 2013, but it was reopened in 2016, causing fish to die once again. [21] The Chinese government released its 13th Five Year plan [21] which involves a strong transition to electric vehicles, generating the need for larger amounts of lithium for battery packs.

Processing Lithium

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With lithium ore, the process of extracting lithium utilizes 500,000 gallons per metric ton of lithium. [21] Holes are drilled into salt flats, and brine that contains minerals rises to the surface for evaporation and filtration that allows isolation of lithium carbonate. [21] Areas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile are labeled the South American lithium triangle as their salt flats contain more than half of the world’s lithium supply. [21] These regions are known to be especially dry, and in Salar de Atacama in Chile, 65 percent of the water supply was used for mining purposes. [20] Local farmers and communities are effected by the lack of water available and have to search for other sources.

A lithium mine in Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina is shown. The area is a salt flat, formed when the water from a lake evaporates frequently. This process produces a layer of minerals, and the resultant brine contains lithium. [22]

There is a risk that water supplies can be contaminated from the waste products and toxic chemicals such as hydrochloric acid that are produced from lithium processing. [21] Researchers have found impacts on fish populations that are located up to 150 miles away from lithium processing facilities. [21] There have also be resident complaints in Salar de Hombre Muerto in Argentina regarding lithium processing contaminating water sources that are used by communities for day to day life, crop irrigation, and their livestock. [21] The lithium operations involved with mining and extracting have contributed to fatal effects on species through water contamination and have caused concerns for communities nearby because of decreasing air and soil quality. [21] With the expansion of lithium mining, specifically due to electric vehicle transition, the improvement of mining technologies and processes would have a beneficial impact on the environment.

Cobalt Mining

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A steam shovel is shown loading copper and cobalt at the Musonoi Mine in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Areas are drilled, blasted, and cleaned during the mining and extraction process with the deepest drill section located 550 meters below surface. [23]

(see also Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo)

Lithium-ion batteries utilize lithium metal oxides as the cathode active material. NCM is popular (nickel, cobalt, and manganese), which is used in a blend with lithium. [24] As the demand for lithium-ion batteries rises, so does the need for the extraction of cobalt. Large amounts of the metal are found in the Democratic Republic of Congo and central Africa. China owns the mines in Congo that produce half of the country’s supply. [21] The DRC produces 60% of the world’s cobalt. [25] A life cycle impact assessment was carried out with SimaPro software outlining environmental impacts of cobalt mining and extraction. [26] Dust from mining can contaminate local soils, plants, and animals, [26] contributing to air pollution. In the cobalt production process, diesel is burned in machines and is known to cause ozone depletion. [26] Southern Congo contains cobalt and copper along with uranium; when minerals are extracted, high radioactive levels become a concern. [27] Further, mining waste pollutes rivers and drinking water. [27] Cobalt mining and extraction for the purposes of lithium-ion battery production have generated rising concerns about environmental impacts.

Benefits of Lithium-ion Battery Use

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Lithium-ion batteries are a non-renewable source of energy as lithium is a mineral found on earth in finite amounts. There are helpful environmental impacts lithium-ion batteries have with the reduction of carbon emissions in electric vehicles. EVs use these cells as a power source and are able to release a smaller portion of greenhouse gas emissions along with air pollutants in comparison to vehicles run on an internal combustion engine. [28] There are no carbon dioxide emissions from driving an electric vehicle with one car preventing the release of 1.5 million grams of carbon dioxide over the course of a year. [28] Further, EVs can prevent noise pollution as they operate more quietly than conventional cars. [28] There are, however, emissions generated in the manufacturing of EVs largely due to the lithium-ion batteries that are being mass-produced, which requires water and electricity consumption. One third of the carbon dioxide lifetime emissions of EVs arise from the manufacturing of these batteries. [28] The lithium-ion batteries also have to be recharged, which requires electricity usage, contributing to emissions. Comparatively, electric car emissions overall are 17-30% lower than conventional vehicles, indicating a reduction in transport emissions and an improvement in air quality. [28] Without batteries acting as a power source, EV manufacturing and use would not be feasible at an industrial scale.

With regards to the content of toxic heavy metals found within lithium-ion batteries, it is much lower than that within lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries. [29] Nickel-cadmium batteries have 6-18% toxic heavy metal content due to cadmium, [30] which is labeled as hazardous waste. Although precautions are taken with lithium-ion batteries during disposal, they are non-hazardous waste. Metals like cadmium should be redirected from landfills as they can leak out and affect drinking water. [31]

Mitigation of Environmental Impacts

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Extracting and processing lithium consumes a large amount of energy and water. In order to decrease the negative environmental impact of lithium-ion batteries, batteries can be recycled, policies for the battery industry can be changed, metal processing can be improved, and research on greener batteries can be done by scientists to reduce reliance on lithium-powered batteries.

Solid waste and recycling

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Since Li-ion batteries contain less toxic metals than other types of batteries which may contain lead or cadmium, they are generally categorized as non-hazardous waste. Li-ion battery elements including iron, copper, nickel and cobalt are considered safe for incinerators and landfills.[citation needed] These metals can be recycled, usually by burning away the other materials, but mining generally remains cheaper than recycling; recycling may cost $3/kg, and in 2019 less than 5% of lithium ion batteries were being recycled. Since 2018, the recycling yield was increased significantly, and recovering lithium, manganese, aluminum, the organic solvents of the electrolyte, and graphite is possible at industrial scales. The most expensive metal involved in the construction of the cell is cobalt. Lithium is less expensive than other metals used and is rarely recycled, but recycling could prevent a future shortage.

Accumulation of battery waste is a serious problem. In 2017, sales of electric vehicles exceeded one million cars per year for the first time, resulting in at least 250,000 tons of unprocessed battery waste. Since the environmental impact of electric cars is heavily affected by the production of these lithium-ion batteries, the development of efficient ways to repurpose waste is crucial.

Recycling is a multi-step process, starting with the storage of batteries before disposal, followed by manual testing, disassembling, and finally the chemical separation of battery components. Re-use of the battery is preferred over complete recycling as there is less embodied energy in the process. As these batteries are a lot more reactive than classical vehicle waste like tire rubber, there are significant risks to stockpiling used batteries.

Pyrometallurgical recovery

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The pyrometallurgical method uses a high-temperature furnace to reduce the components of the metal oxides in the battery to an alloy of Co, Cu, Fe, and Ni. This is the most common and commercially established method of recycling and can be combined with other similar batteries to increase smelting efficiency and improve thermodynamics. The metal current collectors aid the smelting process, allowing whole cells or modules to be melted at once. The product of this method is a collection of metallic alloy, slag, and gas. At high temperatures, the polymers used to hold the battery cells together burn off and the metal alloy can be separated through a hydrometallurgical process into its separate components. The slag can be further refined or used in the cement industry. The process is relatively risk-free and the exothermic reaction from polymer combustion reduces the required input energy. However, in the process, the plastics, electrolytes, and lithium salts will be lost.

Hydrometallurgical metals reclamation

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This method involves the use of aqueous solutions to remove the desired metals from the cathode. The most common reagent is sulfuric acid. Factors that affect the leaching rate include the concentration of the acid, time, temperature, solid-to-liquid-ratio, and reducing agent. It is experimentally proven that H2O2 acts as a reducing agent to speed up the rate of leaching through the reaction:[citation needed]

2LiCoO2(s) + 3H2SO4 + H2O2 → 2CoSO4(aq) + Li2SO4 + 4H2O + O2

Once leached, the metals can be extracted through precipitation reactions controlled by changing the pH level of the solution. Cobalt, the most expensive metal, can then be recovered in the form of sulfate, oxalate, hydroxide, or carbonate. [75] More recently recycling methods experiment with the direct reproduction of the cathode from the leached metals. In these procedures, concentrations of the various leached metals are premeasured to match the target cathode and then the cathodes are directly synthesized.

The main issues with this method, however, is that a large volume of solvent is required and the high cost of neutralization. Although it’s easy to shred up the battery, mixing the cathode and anode at the beginning complicates the process, so they will also need to be separated. Unfortunately, the current design of batteries makes the process extremely complex and it is difficult to separate the metals in a closed-loop battery system. Shredding and dissolving may occur at different locations.

Direct recycling

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Direct recycling is the removal of the cathode or anode from the electrode, reconditioned, and then reused in a new battery. Mixed metal-oxides can be added to the new electrode with very little change to the crystal morphology. The process generally involves the addition of new lithium to replenish the loss of lithium in the cathode due to degradation from cycling. Cathode strips are obtained from the dismantled batteries, then soaked in NMP, and undergo sonication to remove excess deposits. It is treated hydrothermally with a solution containing LiOH/Li2SO4 before annealing.

This method is extremely cost-effective for noncobalt-based batteries as the raw materials do not make up the bulk of the cost. Direct recycling avoids the time-consuming and expensive purification steps, which is great for low-cost cathodes such as LiMn2O4 and LiFePO4. For these cheaper cathodes, most of the cost, embedded energy, and carbon footprint is associated with the manufacturing rather than the raw material. It is experimentally shown that direct recycling can reproduce similar properties to pristine graphite.

The drawback of the method lies in the condition of the retired battery. In the case where the battery is relatively healthy, direct recycling can cheaply restore its properties. However, for batteries where the state of charge is low, direct recycling may not be worth the investment. The process must also be tailored to the specific cathode composition, and therefore the process must be configured to one type of battery at a time. Lastly, in a time with rapidly developing battery technology, the design of a battery today may no longer be desirable a decade from now, rendering direct recycling ineffective.

Policymaking

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Policymakers can require that the some percentage of lithium used to manufacture new batteries is recycled to reduce the amount of lithium being extracted and processed. The European Union requires that 45% of their used batteries are collected for repurposing or recycling. [32] A policy for reaching a 70% collection target by 2030 is being deliberated. [32] By 2030, the goal is to have 4% of the lithium used for building new batteries obtained from recycled metals, and by 2035, this should rise to 10%. [32] There is a concern that if these policies are passed, companies would feel the need to take their batteries out of commission ahead of time (with greater cycle life left) simply to meet the collection rates. Further, there may not be enough recycled material available in order to meet these targets, which could place a hold on battery manufacturing. Due to the shortage of recycled material, European manufacturers could import recycled lithium from China or Korea, which could have adverse carbon footprints. [32] Although policies to encourage battery recycling and less environmentally harmful processing practices should be implemented, researchers focusing on the discovery of innovative ways to reuse and recycle materials is of prominence as well. [32]

Processing Technology

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This is a diagram outlining the process of obtaining and converting geothermal energy into electricity.

In addition to recycling battery components so that less active materials has to be extracted and processed, improvements in the mining process at the beginning stages may also reduce the adverse environmental effects. In the United Kingdom, Cornish Lithium aims to extract lithium compounds using geothermal energy to produce zero carbon lithium, mitigating the impact of energy consumption from mining. [33] Lithium extracted in this way will have a zero carbon impact, and the company is investigating locations through exploration and drilling campaigns. Shallow waters (1-2 km deep) can provide heat energy to help with the extraction process and deep waters (over 5 km) are much warmer, producing zero carbon electricity and heat. [33] An extraction plant has the potential to be powered through this electricity, improving the environmental impact associated with the beginning of life stages for lithium-ion batteries.

Research and Development[34]

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In order to mitigate and reduce the environmental impact of mining cobalt for lithium-ion batteries, researchers are focused on replacing the active material with iron or manganese. [32] These are more commonly found and have a safer extraction process compared to cobalt. [32]

In Holland, AquaBattery is a company that released the Blue Battery which stores power in water. [35] An electric current is passed through salt water, which separates into saline and freshwater through electrodialysis. [35] This stores the energy. During the second discharge process, the technique is reversed so the two separate streams of water are combined to release energy. [35] The energy is then converted back into electrical current. [35] This can store enormous amounts of electricity for tasks like powering the grid during peak demands. [35] Sustainable technologies like this have reduced environmental footprints compared to lithium-ion batteries.

Other scientists are working on removing toxic components from the cathode in lithium-ion batteries. The cathode active material is mixed and adhered to the aluminum current collector using organic solvent binders like polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Scientists want to replace this hazardous solvent with water-based processing to remove a toxic component, which prevents dangerous landfill leakages, while retaining the recyclability of batteries. [36] Jianlin Li’s team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Zheng Li’s group at Virginia Tech are attempting to replace PVDF with a latex-based binder that is “water-dispersible.” [36] Cycling tests conducted on batteries made with the water-based electrodes have performed similarly to PVDF-based ones, though more research is needed. [36] This work can help make battery manufacturing safer and more cost-efficient. Additionally, the work of researchers towards the development of higher energy density batteries will allow for the cells to use less metal, reducing the need for mining and extracting, improving environmental impact. This also allows batteries to carry a greater amount of charge, which means electric vehicles can run longer without needing to be recharged, reducing carbon footprints. [37]

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