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Wunambal language[edit]
The Wunambal language is a moribund Australian Aboriginal language of Western Australia. It is a language that is often grouped alongside Worrorran and Ungarinyin, as they are from the same Northern Kimberley Division.[1] Other names include Jeidji, Jeithi, Unambal, Wumnabal, Wunambullu, Yeidji, Yeithi.[2]
Classification[edit]
Wunambal is a noun-classifying language that is part of the family of Northern Kimberley languages spoken by the Worrorra people of the north-west Kimberleys in Australia, an area home to remnant groups of Australian Aboriginals.[3] It has been classified by linguists as non-Pama-Nyungan; "Other adjacent non-Pama-Nyungan language families are Nyulnyulan to the south-west, Bunuban to the south, and Jarrakan to the east."[4] Linguists classify Wunambal and its dialects as pronominal prefixing languages. Some have distinguished three sub-groupings of Worrorran as Wunambalic, Ungarinyinic, and Worrorric, further distinguished as Northern, Central and Southern.[1] It is a polysynthetic language that is distinct in that "all of the linguistic varieties in the Worrorran language family have noun classes" and "verbs that take subject and object prefixes."[4]
History[edit]
Wunambal's earliest noted documentation was in the early 20th century by J.R.B. Love.[5]
Aboriginal peoples have occupied the Kimberleys for at least 40,000 years. The Wunambal peoples are members of their territory's descent group, and they are part of what is characterized as 'clan estates.' Their particular estate is termed guraa, inclusive of the Wunambal people and the Gaambera people.[6]
After noted contact with Europeans, Worrorran peoples consisted of around 300.[5] There are now fewer than ten speakers of the Wunambal language.[7]
Geographic distribution[edit]
Official status[edit]
Wunambal was originally spoken by the Worrora peoples who migrated from their original lands in the west Kimberley area since 1956.[5]A continuum of these speakers ranges from "north of the Prince Regent River" to "as far north as Mt. Trafalgar."[8]
This designation originates from the shared influences common to the area;[9] it is through these same inferences that contributes to Wunambal phonology and syntax association with Worrorran and Ungarinyin.[10]
Dialects/Varieties[edit]
Subject to debate by some scholars, Wunambal dialects include Wunambal proper, Gamberre, Kwini, Miwa, Yiidji, Wilawila, and Ginan. In contention by linguists is that some of these dialects may be considered languages of their own, while remaining closely related.[1] "Worrarran languages constitute a group of [20] or so of named varieties spoken in the Kimberley bloc"[11]; owed to the many similarities and high degree of mutual intelligibility among the three associated languages of the Worrorra people.
Phonology[edit]
There remain a few distinctive differences heard between Wunambal and its sister languages; personal history is a factor in these recognized differences. "This is a register of linguistically differentiated tribes, each with its own fixed point of geographic origin."[3]Notably, Worrorran languages have cluster assimilation.[5]
Consonants[edit]
The Wunambal language contrasts with other Kimberley languages in its contrast producing alveolar vs. post-alveolar sounds. Stops, nasals, laterals, rhotics, and glides are inclusive of manner of articulation: where voicing is not contrastive in stops. A table of consonant inventory and explanation of consonant production can be found in Wunambal: A language of the North-West Kimberley Region, Western Australia by TL. Carr.[4]
Vowels[edit]
Wunambal "has been analysed as a six vowel system with the contrasts /i e a o u ɨ/, with /ɨ/ only found in the Northern variety."[12]
Grammar[edit]
There are five noun classes in the northern half of Wunambal country and three in the southern half.[8]
Morphology[edit]
Wunambal is polysynthetic; notably, Worrorran languages contain overarching concord.[5]
A complete list of Wunambal class and case markers can be found in Notes on the Wunambal language by Arthur Capell (1941).[8]
Syntax[edit]
As in all Northern Kimberley languages, they contain phenomena of simple and compound verbs, utilizing auxiliaries through conjugation: "certain verbs are conjugated by means of prefixes for person (and to a lesser degree tense), while suffixes are added to show aspect, mood, tense and voice."[1] All Worrorran derived languages contain nominal classification, head-marking, and complex predication.[5]
Vocabulary[edit]
Northern Worrorran languages share vocabulary.[8]
References[edit]
- ^ a b c d Capell, A. (1972). The Languages of the Northern Kimberley, W. A.: Some Structural Principles.
- ^ "Wunambal".
- ^ a b Berson, J. (2010). Talking Language to Whitefellas. History of Anthropology Newsletter, 37(1), 3-20.
- ^ a b c Carr TL. (2001). Wunambal: A language of the North-West Kimberley Region, Western Australia. Retrieved from http://e-publications.une.edu.au/1959.11/16787
- ^ a b c d e f Clendon, Mark. Worrorra: a language of the north-west Kimberley coast. University of Adelaide Press, 2015.
- ^ Vigilante, T., Toohey, J., Gorring, A., Blundell, V., Saunders, T., Mangolamara, S., ... & Doohan, K. (2013). Island country: Aboriginal connections, values and knowledge of the Western Australian Kimberley islands in the context of an island biological survey. Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement, 81, 145-181.
- ^ McGregor, William, and Alan Rumsey. Worrorran revisited: the case for genetic relations among languages of the Northern Kimberley region of Western Australia. Pacific Linguistics, 2009.
- ^ a b c d Capell, A. (1941). Notes on the Wunambal language. Oceania, 11(3), 295-308.
- ^ Dixon, R. M. (2002). Australian languages: their nature and development (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ McGregor, W. (2004). The Languages of the Kimberley, Western Australia. Psychology Press.
- ^ Koch, H. J., Bowern, C., Evans, B., & Miceli, L. (2008). Morphology and language history: in honour of Harold Koch. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
- ^ Loakes, D., Carr, T., Gawne, L., & Wigglesworth, G. (2015). Vowels in Wunambal, a Language of the North West Kimberley Region. Australian Journal Of Linguistics, 35(3), 203-231. doi:10.1080/07268602.2015.1023169