User:A455bcd9/Levantine

Before: Levantine Arabic June 2021 After: Levantine Arabic

To do

• Consistent romanization
• Audio recordings for the Little Prince
• Add image classification tree
• https://www.mdpi.com/2226-471X/6/4/173/htm substrate, superstrate, adstrate
• References:
  • "Differences between Colloquial Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic exist on all levels: phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical." Verbal noun, EALL
  • "The differences between Classical Arabic and dialectal Arabic concern all levels (lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, and se- mantic), to the degree that uneducated speakers of Algerian, Moroccan, and Tunisian Arabic cannot understand Classical Arabic, while flu- ent Classical Arabic speakers need some time to understand dialectal Arabic." Language shift: Amazigh, EALL
  • "Besides, Modern Standard Arabic remains the prerogative of the educated few because the majority of the Arabic-speaking population are still illiterate with little or no competence in Modern Standard Arabic (Holes 1995b:3–5)." Speech accomodation, EALL
  • "However, the fact remains that Modern Standard Arabic (and certainly Classical Arabic) are not spontaneously spoken languages, and not authentic vehicles for spoken proficiency." Educated Arabic, EALL

Romanization

Letter(s)	Romanization								IPA	Pronunciation notes
	Mine...	Cowell	Al-Masri	Aldrich	Elihay	Liddicoat	Assimil	Arabizi
أ إ ؤ ئ ء	ʔ	ʔ	ʔ	ʔ	’	'	’	2 or not written	[ʔ]	glottal stop like in uh-oh
ق	q	q	g	ʔ q	q q̈	q̄ q	’	2 or not written 9 or q	[ʔ] or [g] [q]	- glottal stop (urban accent) or "hard g" as in get (Jordanian, Beduin) - guttural "k", pronounced further back in the throat (formal MSA words)
ع	3 or ε	X	3	3	c	ع	c	3	[ʕ]	voiced throat sound similar to "a" as in father, but with more friction
ب	b								[b]	as in English
د	d								[d]	as in English
ض	ḍ	ḍ	D	ɖ	ḍ	ḍ	d	d or D	[dˤ]	emphatic "d" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)
ف	f								[f]	as in English
غ	ġ	ġ	gh	ɣ	ġ	gh	gh	3’ or 8 or gh	[ɣ]	like Spanish "g" between vowels, similar to French "r"
ه	h								[h]	as in English
ح	ħ or ḥ	ḥ	H	ɧ	ḥ	ḥ	h	7 or h	[ħ]	"whispered h", has more friction in the throat than "h"
خ	x or k	x	x	x	ɧ	kh	kh	7’ or 5 or kh	[x]	"ch" as in Scottish loch, like German "ch" or Spanish "j"
ج	j	ž	j					j or g	[dʒ] or [ʒ]	"j" as in jump or "s" as in pleasure
ك	k								[k]	as in English
ل	l								[l] [ɫ]	- light "l" as in English love - dark "l" as call, used in Allah and derived words
م	m								[m]	as in English
ن	n								[n]	as in English
ر	r								[rˤ] [r]	- "rolled r" as in Spanish or Italian, usually emphatic - not emphatic before vowel "e" or "i" or after long vowel "i"
س	s								[s]	as in English
ث	ṯ	θ	th	s	s ṯ	th	t	t or s or not written	[s] [θ]	- "s" as in English (urban) - voiceless "th" as in think (rural, formal MSA words)
ص	ṣ	ṣ	S	ʂ	ṣ	ṣ	s	s	[sˤ]	emphatic "s" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)
ش	š	š	sh	š	š	sh	ch	sh or ch	[ʃ]	"sh" as in sheep
ت	t								[t]	as in English but with the tongue touching the back of the upper teeth
ط	ṭ	ṭ	T	ƭ	ṭ	ṭ	t	t or T	[tˤ]	emphatic "t" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)
و	w								[w]	as in English
ي	y								[y]	as in English
ذ	ḏ	𝛿	dh	z	z ḏ	d	d or z	d or z	[z] [ð]	- "z" as in English (urban) - voiced "th" as in this (rural, formal MSA words)
ز	z								[z]	as in English
ظ	ẓ	ẓ	DH	ʐ	ẓ	ẓ	z	th or z	[zˤ]	emphatic "z" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)