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Tornado outbreak of May 20–22, 1949

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Tornado outbreak of May 20–22, 1949
Tornado outbreak
Tornadoes≥ 66
Maximum ratingF4 tornado
DurationMay 20–22, 1949
Overall effects
Fatalities57
Injuries558
Damage$9,330,500 ($119,480,000 in 2024 USD)[note 1]
Areas affectedCentral and Eastern United States
Part of the tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1949

From May 20–22, 1949, a large-scale tornado outbreak affected portions of the continental United States, killing several dozen people and injuring hundreds more. Generating at least 66 tornadoes, the severe weather event produced 51 or more significant—F2 or stronger—tornadoes, half a dozen of which were retroactively rated F4 by tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis. One of the largest on record prior to the start of official data in 1950, the outbreak included many tornado families and unrecorded or weak tornadoes, so its actual total was likely considerably higher than noted here. Newspaper headlines mentioned an "army" of tornadoes in Kansas on May 20. More than 100 tornadoes in all, mainly weak, may have formed over the Great Plains that day; Grazulis was able to find 40 just in Kansas "with little effort".[1][note 2]

Outbreak statistics

[edit]
Daily statistics of tornadoes during the tornado outbreak sequence of May 20–22, 1949
Date[note 3] Total F-scale rating[note 4] Deaths Injuries Damage[note 5]
 FU   F0   F1   F2   F3   F4   F5 
May 20 36 9 ? ? 17 9 1 0 4 57 $1,391,500
May 21 24 4 ? ? 11 4 5 0 52 491 $6,854,000
May 22 6 2 ? ? 4 0 0 0 1 10 $1,085,000
Total 66 15 ? ? 32 13 6 0 57 558 $9,330,500

Confirmed tornadoes

[edit]
Confirmed tornadoes by Fujita rating
FU F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total
15 ? ? 32 13 6 0 ≥ 66

Prior to 1990, there is a likely undercount of tornadoes, particularly E/F0–1, with reports of weaker tornadoes becoming more common as population increased. A sharp increase in the annual average E/F0–1 count by approximately 200 tornadoes was noted upon the implementation of NEXRAD Doppler weather radar in 1990–1991.[9][note 6] 1974 marked the first year where significant tornado (E/F2+) counts became homogenous with contemporary values, attributed to the consistent implementation of Fujita scale assessments.[13][note 4] Numerous discrepancies on the details of tornadoes in this outbreak exist between sources. The total count of tornadoes and ratings differs from various agencies accordingly. The list below documents information from the most contemporary official sources alongside assessments from tornado historian Thomas P. Grazulis.

May 20 event

[edit]
Confirmed tornadoes – Friday, May 20, 1949
F# Location County / Parish State Time (UTC) Path length Width[note 7] Damage
F3 Beecher Island (CO) to near Haigler (NE) Yuma (CO), Cheyenne (KS), Dundy (NE) Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska 19:15–? 30 mi (48 km) 400 yd (370 m) $35,000
This and the following tornado family successively paralleled each other. The first event destroyed many barns and a pair of homes. A truck was hit, forcing its drivers to shelter beneath, and a barn in transit blown away "like paper". One person was injured.[17][18]
F3 S of Wray (CO) to W of Benkelman (NE) Yuma (CO), Cheyenne (KS), Dundy (NE) Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska 21:30–? 40 mi (64 km) 400 yd (370 m) $100,000
Forming over Black Wolf Canyon, this event struck four farmsteads in Colorado, wrecking 12 structures and splintering 150 utility poles. Crossing into Kansas and Nebraska, the tornado family destroyed many barns, hitting at least six farms. One injury occurred.[17]
F3 E of Bird City Cheyenne Kansas 21:30–? 10 mi (16 km) Un­known Un­known
This tornado leveled all but a corner of a farmhouse. A few injuries occurred.[19]
F2 N of McDonald Rawlins Kansas 21:30–? 4 mi (6.4 km) Un­known Un­known
Barns were wrecked.[19]
FU Un­known Rawlins Kansas 21:30–22:30 Un­known Un­known Un­known
This was one of four narrow, weak tornadoes to hit the county.[19][18]
FU Un­known Rawlins Kansas 21:30–22:30 Un­known Un­known Un­known
This was one of four narrow, weak tornadoes to hit the county.[19][18]
FU Un­known Rawlins Kansas 21:30–22:30 Un­known Un­known Un­known
This was one of four narrow, weak tornadoes to hit the county.[19][18]
FU Un­known Rawlins Kansas 21:30–22:30 Un­known Un­known Un­known
This was one of four narrow, weak tornadoes to hit the county.[19][18]
F2 W of Oberlin Decatur Kansas 22:15–? 4 mi (6.4 km) 50 yd (46 m) Un­known
This tornado struck six farmsteads, wrecking structures.[19]
F3 S of Scott City to Healy Scott, Lane Kansas 22:15–? 25 mi (40 km) 200 yd (180 m) $100,000
This tornado unroofed three or more farmhouses and destroyed outbuildings or barns on nine farmsteads. 12 homes were badly damaged at Healy, one of which was destroyed.[19]
F2 SW to SE of Lipscomb Lipscomb Texas 22:54–? 4 mi (6.4 km) 100 yd (91 m) Un­known
This tornado unroofed a combined store and post office. A barn and home were wrecked as well.[19]
F3 SSE of Healy to NW of Shields Lane Kansas 23:00–? 10 mi (16 km) 200 yd (180 m) Un­known
This tornado hit five farmsteads, destroying and scattering a farmhouse.[19]
F2 Near Goin Claiborne Tennessee 23:00–? 5 mi (8.0 km) Un­known $37,000
This tornado destroyed three barns and five homes along Barren Creek. Three people were injured.[19][20]
F2 N of Copeland to western Rozel Gray, Ford, Hodgeman, Pawnee Kansas 23:30–? 85 mi (137 km) 100 yd (91 m) $175,000
A family of at least eight tornadoes, this event produced sporadic damage. 70 homes received damage at Rozel, and rural farmhouses lost their roofs. "Hundreds" of animals died in the path, and four people were injured. The tornado also tracked near Hanston and Howell. Many funnel clouds were observed, four near Dodge City.[19][20]
F2 Balko to southern Beaver Beaver Oklahoma 23:30–? 15 mi (24 km) Un­known $1,500
1 death – This was a family of at least three tornadoes. A farmhouse was wrecked, and other homes were unroofed.[19][18]
F2 Lipscomb (TX) to N of Woodward (OK) Lipscomb (TX), Ellis (OK), Woodward (OK) Texas, Oklahoma 00:15–? 55 mi (89 km) 100 yd (91 m) $250,000
This tornado family first unroofed a store and other structures in Texas. Entering Oklahoma, it damaged a hangar and aircraft at Gage Airport. Farms were extensively damaged in the Tangier–Shattuck area, and barns were wrecked near Fargo. Most of the damage was to Woodward Army Air Field, now West Woodward Airport, where a few large warehouses and 11 aircraft were torn apart, resulting in three injuries.[19][20]
F2 SW of Coldwater to Wilmore Comanche Kansas 01:30–? 19 mi (31 km) 100 yd (91 m) $200,000
A large tornado damaged "the entire town" of Wilmore.[19]
F3 Near Catesby Ellis Oklahoma 01:30–? Un­known 100 yd (91 m) $8,000
1 death – This tornado leveled a farmstead. The dead, a woman, was carried 300 yd (900 ft) and her husband injured.[19]
F2 SE of Lincoln Lincoln Kansas 01:45–? 4 mi (6.4 km) 50 yd (46 m) $10,000
This tornado wrecked windmills, small outbuildings, and a home. Trees were downed and snapped as well.[19][20]
F2 Yewed to ENE of Nash Alfalfa, Grant Oklahoma 01:45–? 25 mi (40 km) 400 yd (370 m) $150,000
1 death – This was either a family of tornadoes or two unrelated events. Businesses and homes were destroyed at Nash. The tornado felled a grain elevator, fatally crushing a man below. 27 injuries occurred.[19][20]
F2 E of Woodward Woodward Oklahoma 02:00–? 2 mi (3.2 km) 75 yd (69 m) Un­known
This tornado tore the roof off a home and wrecked a barn.[19]
F4 SW of Gypsum to NE of Solomon Saline, Dickinson Kansas 02:00–02:30 25 mi (40 km) 400 yd (370 m) $35,000
1 death – This tornado only hit a few farms, obliterating a farmhouse. A railroad bridge was partly wrecked as well. The tornado killed a motorist whose automobile was lofted 200 yd (600 ft). Businesses and homes in Solomon received F2 damage. Five injuries occurred.[21][19][20]
F3 Near Hope to N of Junction City Dickinson, Geary Kansas 02:15–? 30 mi (48 km) 400 yd (370 m) Un­known
Barns were shattered and one or two homes destroyed. About six other homes were shorn of their roofs. The tornado killed 5,000 chickens as well, blew away sheds, and downed power lines.[19][20]
F2 SW to NE of Mooreland Woodward Oklahoma 02:30–? 8 mi (13 km) 70 yd (64 m) $14,000
This tornado, part of the Lipscomb–Gage family, unroofed four homes and wrecked a filling station.[19]
F2 SE of Hammon to N of Thomas Custer Oklahoma 02:30–? 35 mi (56 km) 100 yd (91 m) $120,000
This tornado wrecked many barns and five farmhouses, shifting several of the latter on their foundations. 13 of 14 cattle were carried aloft 1⁄4 mi (0.40 km), audible in midair, but uninjured. Downbursts damaged 25 homes in Thomas. Three people were injured.[19][20]
F2 W of Vici Ellis Oklahoma 02:30–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
This tornado unroofed and destroyed four homes.[19]
F2 Belva to E of Waynoka Woodward, Woods Oklahoma 02:45–? 20 mi (32 km) Un­known Un­known
This event, related to the Mooreland F2, may have been two or three tornadoes. Barns were destroyed on two or more farmsteads.[19]
F2 Chase Rice Kansas 02:45–? 1 mi (1.6 km) Un­known Un­known
This tornado damaged eight homes, unroofed one, and destroyed another. Four injuries occurred.[22]
F3 W of Waynoka to near Hopeton Woodward, Woods Oklahoma 03:00–? 30 mi (48 km) 100 yd (91 m) $56,000
This tornado struck nine farms, obliterating three of them. One farm lost 40 head of cattle. Two vehicles—a pickup truck and a car—were carried 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km).[22][20]
F2 SE of Watonga to S of Loyal to near Dover Blaine, Kingfisher Oklahoma 03:00–? 27 mi (43 km) Un­known Un­known
This tornado, part of a 55-mile-long (89 km) family, destroyed or damaged structures on 20 farmsteads, leveling an incomplete home.[22][20]
FU SW of Wellington Sumner Kansas 03:00–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
Rural barns and farmhouses were damaged.[20]
F3 NW of Emporia to Allen to E of Eskridge Lyon, Wabaunsee Kansas 03:45–? 30 mi (48 km) 300 yd (270 m) $75,000
This intense, nocturnal tornado struck 29 farms and caused F3 damage to homes at two locations. Sheds, barns, and utility poles were wrecked. Three people were injured.[22][20]
FU E of Hopeton (1st tornado) Woods Oklahoma Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
This and the following tornado were related to the Waynoka F3.[22]
FU E of Hopeton (2nd tornado) Woods Oklahoma Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
This and the preceding tornado were related to the Waynoka F3.[22]
FU S to E of Stillwater Payne Oklahoma Un­known 18 mi (29 km) Un­known $15,000
Farmhouses were badly damaged.[20]
FU E of Salamonia Jay Indiana Un­known 3 mi (4.8 km) 440 yd (400 m) $10,000
Details are unavailable.[23]

May 21 event

[edit]
Confirmed tornadoes – Saturday, May 21, 1949
F# Location County / Parish State Time (UTC) Path length Width[note 7] Damage
F2 NW of Watonga to NW of Hitchcock Blaine Oklahoma 05:30–? 12 mi (19 km) Un­known $10,000
This tornado severely damaged five farmsteads, tearing apart and scattering a small farmhouse.[22]
F4 SW of Greenfield to Etna Blaine Oklahoma 05:30–? 15 mi (24 km) 400 yd (370 m) $70,000
1 death – This tornado destroyed or damaged 13 or more farmhouses, only one of which it obliterated. Seven people were injured.[21][22][20]
F3 SW of Cleveland Pawnee, Osage Oklahoma 06:15–? 5 mi (8.0 km) Un­known $100,000
This tornado wrecked a few homes. Several others were either shifted on their foundations or shorn of their roofs. An oil refinery was damaged as well. One minor injury occurred.[22][23]
F2 Near Oologah Rogers Oklahoma 06:30–? Un­known 200 yd (180 m) $4,000
This tornado destroyed a barn. A fallen tree injured a person.[22]
F2 N of Claremore to Chelsea to Estella Rogers, Craig Oklahoma 06:45–? 18 mi (29 km) 150 yd (140 m) $50,000
This tornado unroofed or collapsed several buildings. An injury occurred.[22]
F2 Big Cabin Craig Oklahoma 07:07–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
Six barns were destroyed and a home unroofed. A gym lost part of its roof as well.[22]
FU White Oak Craig Oklahoma ~07:07–07:10 3 mi (4.8 km) Un­known Un­known
Details are unavailable.[23]
FU S of Vinita Craig Oklahoma ~07:07–07:10 Un­known Un­known Un­known
Details are unavailable. This tornado paralleled the next event.[23]
F2 Southern Vinita Craig Oklahoma 07:10–? Un­known 100 yd (91 m) $30,000
A pavilion and farmhouse lost their roofs. Other structures received damage as well.[22][23]
FU N of Mountain Grove Wright Missouri 10:30–? Un­known 880 yd (800 m) Un­known
Most of the damage was to trees. A chicken coop, a home, a garage, and a few barns were damaged as well.[23]
F2 Witt Springs Estill Kentucky 17:30–? 6 mi (9.7 km) 150 yd (140 m) Un­known
This tornado destroyed or damaged three barns and a pair of homes.[22]
F3 Near New Hartford to SE of Clarksville Pike Missouri 21:30–? 20 mi (32 km) 200 yd (180 m) $200,000
1 death – This tornado destroyed 14 homes and 31 other buildings. Nine other homes and 26 other buildings received damage. 20 injuries occurred.[22][23]
F2 Pittsburg Van Buren Iowa 22:00–? 0.5 mi (0.80 km) 400 yd (370 m) $30,000
This tornado struck eight homes, unroofing a few of them. Other structures were destroyed or damaged as well.[22]
F2 S of Washington Franklin Missouri 22:00–? 5 mi (8.0 km) Un­known Un­known
This tornado destroyed 21 outbuildings and four barns. It also damaged 11 other buildings, a barn, and a trio of homes.[22][23]
F3 Eastern Terre Haute to SW of Burnett Vigo Indiana 22:05–? 8 mi (13 km) 200 yd (180 m) $250,000
3 deaths – Forming near Cox Field, now Terre Haute Regional Airport, this tornado hit 10 homes. 10 injuries occurred.[22][23]
F4 NE of Graysville to northwestern Shelburn to N of Jordan Sullivan, Clay, Owen Indiana 22:15–? 40 mi (64 km) 150 yd (140 m) $1,000,000
14 deaths – This extremely violent tornado wrecked farmhouses at six locations, particularly south of Bowling Green and Lewis. 160 homes at Shelburn were torn apart, many leveled, and 13 people were killed. The tornado hit a cabin on the Eel River, causing an additional death, and killed "hundreds" of animals as well. 251 people were injured. The path may have continued as far as Cloverdale.[21][22][23]
F2 Lambert Field St. Louis Missouri 22:30–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
This tornado unroofed a few homes. Aircraft and approximately 16 other homes received damage, along with trees. A few injuries occurred.[22][23]
F2 SSW of Mount Sterling Brown Illinois 22:30–? 12 mi (19 km) 200 yd (180 m) $40,000
This tornado struck eight farms, unroofing homes and destroying barns.[22][23]
F4 E of Florissant (MO) to Wood River (IL) to Livingston (IL) St. Louis (MO), St. Charles (MO), Madison (IL) Missouri, Illinois 22:50–? 30 mi (48 km) 880 yd (800 m)♯ $1,500,000
5 deaths – This intense tornado, related to the Washington–Lambert Field family, produced F3 damage at Spanish Lake, Missouri, before hitting Wood River and northern Roxana, Illinois. Up to 35% of the homes in these areas, 300 in all, were destroyed or damaged, along with "several hundred" other buildings, but F4 impacts were confined to a small section of Wood River, principally 6th Street. Farther on, F1 and F2 damage occurred at Worden and Livingston. A few trailer parks were destroyed as well, along with 500 acres (200 ha) of woodland, and an oil refinery was severely damaged. 50 head of livestock were killed, and 55 people were injured.[21][22][23]
F4 SW of Palestine (IL) to NW of Sullivan (IN) Crawford (IL), Sullivan (IN) Illinois, Indiana 23:00–? 8 mi (13 km) 50 yd (46 m) $70,000
4 deaths – This violent tornado damaged 20 buildings and destroyed three homes. The tornado obliterated a restaurant, killing four patrons. One of the dead was found in a "distant" tree. Cars were tossed up to 300 yd (900 ft) as well, and a pumping station was wrecked. Seven injuries occurred. A National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) technical report in 1999 listed this tornado as an F5, but Grazulis considered it an F4 in 1993 and 2001.[21][22][24][25][23]
F2 N of West Point Lee Iowa 23:30–? 4 mi (6.4 km) Un­known Un­known
Five farms were extensively impacted. 10 hogs were killed and a barn was wrecked. A brick home lost its roof as well.[22][23]
F3 N of Marble Hill to E of Oak Ridge Bollinger, Cape Girardeau Missouri 23:45–? 15 mi (24 km) 250 yd (230 m) Un­known
1 death – This intense tornado destroyed 14 outbuildings, seven barns, and seven homes. Six other homes and another building received damage. Six injuries occurred.[26][23]
F4 Northwestern Cape Girardeau Cape Girardeau (MO), Alexander (IL) Missouri, Illinois 00:55–? 10 mi (16 km) 200 yd (180 m) $3,500,000
23 deaths – This was the most destructive tornado in Missouri since September 29, 1927, despite only impacting the fringe of town. It leveled "dozens" of homes on the outskirts of Cape Girardeau, destroying 203 in all and damaging 231 others. 33 businesses were destroyed or damaged as well, and a church was badly damaged. The tornado then crossed the Mississippi River, only damaging trees in Illinois. 130 people were injured, many severely.[21][26][23]
FU Marked Tree Poinsett Arkansas 03:30–? Un­known 400 yd (370 m) Un­known
A "small" tornado felled trees, damaged homes, and tore the roof off a cotton gin.[23]

May 22 event

[edit]
Confirmed tornadoes – Sunday, May 22, 1949
F# Location County / Parish State Time (UTC) Path length Width[note 7] Damage
FU Somerset Pulaski Kentucky 07:00–07:05 Un­known 440 yd (400 m) $750,000
1 death – This tornado coincided with an hour-long period of "high" wind. A few large garages were damaged, along with many dwellings. A wholesale grocery store and a tobacco warehouse were wrecked as well. This event may have been a downburst.[27][23]
FU Red Boiling Springs Macon Tennessee 08:00–? Un­known Un­known $300,000
This tornado felled trees and leveled barns. Homes were shorn of their roofs and torn apart as well. Much livestock was injured or killed.[23]
F2 Northern Abilene Taylor Texas 00:15–? 1 mi (1.6 km) 100 yd (91 m) $35,000
Officially a severe wind at the time, this tornado affected 10 blocks, destroying or unroofing seven homes. 30 other homes received damage, and five people were injured.[26][23]
F2 SW of Clayton to N of Hosensack Berks, Montgomery, Lehigh Pennsylvania 00:30–? 7 mi (11 km) 200 yd (180 m) Un­known
This tornado unroofed a hosiery plant and ripped the topmost floor off a three-story apartment. It also tore utility poles loose, wrecked barns, and destroyed five chicken coops. Five injuries occurred.[26]
F2 Cauthornville King and Queen Virginia 01:00–? 1.5 mi (2.4 km) 400 yd (370 m) Un­known
This tornado wrecked barns and outbuildings.[26]
F2 Harrisburg to near Hummelstown Dauphin Pennsylvania 01:30–? 8 mi (13 km) Un­known Un­known
This tornado damaged several barns and tore the roof off a home.[26]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ All losses are in 1949 USD unless otherwise noted.
  2. ^ An outbreak is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[2]
  3. ^ All dates are based on the local time zone where the tornado touched down; however, all times are in Coordinated Universal Time and dates are split at midnight CST/CDT for consistency.
  4. ^ a b The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[3][4] Tornado ratings were retroactively applied to events prior to the formal adoption of the F-scale by the National Weather Service.[5] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[6] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[7] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[8]
  5. ^ The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Storm Data publication does not list exact damage totals for every event, instead giving damage categories. As such, damage for individual tornadoes is not comprehensive.
  6. ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[10] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[11] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[12]
  7. ^ a b c The listed width values are primarily the average/mean width of the tornadoes, with those having known maximum widths denoted by ♯. From 1952 to 1994, reports largely list mean width whereas contemporary years list maximum width.[14] Values provided by Grazulis are the average width, with estimates being rounded down (i.e. 0.5 mi (0.80 km) is rounded down from 880 yards to 800 yards.[15][16]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 38, 946.
  2. ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
  3. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
  4. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
  5. ^ Edwards et al. 2013, p. 641–642.
  6. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  7. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  8. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  9. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1496.
  10. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
  11. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  12. ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
  13. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, pp. 1497, 1503.
  14. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1494.
  15. ^ Brooks 2004, p. 310.
  16. ^ Grazulis 1990, p. ix.
  17. ^ a b Grazulis 1993, p. 945.
  18. ^ a b c d e f USWB 1949, p. 159.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Grazulis 1993, p. 946.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n USWB 1949, p. 160.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Grazulis 1984, p. A-59.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Grazulis 1993, p. 947.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u USWB 1949, p. 161.
  24. ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 20.
  25. ^ Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 12.
  26. ^ a b c d e f Grazulis 1993, p. 948.
  27. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 110.

Sources

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