Jump to content

Neo-Ba'athism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Syrian Ba'athism)
Part of a series on
Ba'athism
Flag of the Ba'ath Party
Organizations
Arab Ba'ath1940–1947
Arab Ba'ath Movement1940–1947
Ba'ath Party1947–1966
Baath Party (pro-Iraqi)1968–2003
Baath Party (pro-Syrian)1966–present
Variants
Neo-Ba'athism1966–2024
Saddamism1979–2003
People
Literature
History
Regional organizations
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Libya
Mauritania
Palestine
Sudan
Syria
Tunisia
Yemen
Splinter groups
Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party1960–1962/63
Socialist Lebanon1965–1970
Arab Revolutionary Workers Party1966–present
Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party1970–present
Sudanese Ba'ath Party2002–present
Armed groups
Related topics

Neo-Ba'athism is a far-left[1] variant of Ba'athism that was formed as a result of the 1966 Syrian coup d'état led by Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad, which moved the Syrian Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party into a militarist organization that became independent of the National Command of the original Ba'ath Party. Neo-Ba'athism has been described as a divergence from Ba'athism proper that had gone beyond its pan-Arabist ideological basis by stressing the precedent of the military and purging the classical Ba'athist leadership of the old guard, including Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar.[2][3] The Neo-Ba'athist regime, which espoused radical left ideologies such as Marxism, abandoned Pan-Arabism, and sought to strengthen ties with the Soviet Union, came into conflict with Arab nationalists such as Nasserists and the Iraqi Ba'athists, particularly Saddamists, with whom they maintained a bitter rivalry.[4] From their seizure of power in the Syrian Arab Republic as a result of the 1963 Syrian coup d'état, neo-Ba'athist officers purged traditional civilian elites to establish a military dictatorship operating in totalitarian lines.[5]

Neo-Ba'athism is primarily associated with Assadism, based on the policies of the successive governments of Hafez al-Assad and his son Bashar al-Assad. This system was largely characterized by nepotism and sectarianism, with Hafez al-Assad's seizure of power in the 1970 Syrian coup d'état leading to the consolidation of Alawite minority dominance within the military and security forces.[6] State propaganda portrayed Assadism as a neo-Ba'athist current that evolved Ba'athist ideology with the needs of the modern era.[7] Neo-Ba'athism has been criticized by the founder of Ba'athist ideology, Michel Aflaq, for diverging from the original principles of Ba'athism.[8]

Ideology

[edit]
Salah Jadid, strongman and leader of the 1966 Syrian coup d'état that brought neo-Ba'athists to power

Neo-Ba'athism advocates the creation of a "vanguard" of leftist revolutionaries committed to build an egalitarian, socialist state in Syria and other Arab countries before making steps to achieve pan-Arab unity. The vanguard organisation is the Ba'ath party; which advocates class-struggle against the traditional Syrian economic elite classes; the big agriculturalists, industrialists, bourgeoisie and feudal landlords. By the 1970s, 85% of agricultural lands were distributed to landless peasant populations and tenant farmers. Banks, oil companies, power production and 90% of large-scale industries were nationalised. The neo-Ba'athists led by Salah Jadid who came to power in 1966 concentrated on improving the Syrian economy and exporting the doctrines of class-conflict and militant socialist revolution to the neighbouring countries. This view was challenged by General Hafez al-Assad and his neo-Ba'ath faction; who were proponents of a military-centric approach and focused on a strategy of strengthening the Syrian military to defend the socialist government against imperialist forces and their alleged internal collaborators. Assad favoured reconciliation of various leftist factions and pursued better relations with other Arab states. Although majority of the party members favoured Salah, Hafez was able to gain the upperhand following the events of the 1970 coup dubbed the "Corrective Movement" in official Syrian Ba'ath history. Assad's victory also marked the supersedure of the military over the Ba'ath party structures; making the armed forces a central centre of political power.[9][10][11][12]

Stance on religion

[edit]

Neo-Ba'athism views religion as the "foremost symbol of reaction" preventing the birth of a modern socialist society, and advocate strict state supervision over religious activities for sustaining what its ideologues regard as a healthy, secularist society. During Salah Jadid's reign in power, the Ba'ath postured itself as a strongly anti-religious political entity; adhering to the Marxist–Leninist approach of top-down regimentation of the society through liquidation of what it regarded as "reactionary" classes such as the traditional ulema. The Grand Mufti's official status was downgraded by the Ba'athist government and the conventional role of religious clergy in state functioning was curtailed. While state ministers, officials, educators, etc. regularly preached about the "perils of religion"; party periodicals and magazines during the 1960s regularly made predictions about the "impending demise" of religion through the socialist revolution.[13]

During the rule of Salah Jadid, neo-Ba'athist ideologues openly denounced religion as a source of what they considered as the backwardness of the Arabs.[14] Following popular revulsion at Jadid's blatant anti-religious policies, Hafez al-Assad began to tone down the secularisation programme during the 1970s, by co-opting some pro-government clerics like Ramadan al-Bouti to counter the Islamic opposition and granted them a degree of autonomy from the regime. Simultaneously, the regime began the "nationalization" of religious discourse through a loyal clerical network, and condemned anyone deviating from the state-promoted "Ba'thist version of Islam" as a threat to the society.[15] The state-sponsored religious discourse during the rule of Hafez al-Assad promoted a left-wing nationalist worldview that sought to anathematize Islamists and re-inforce loyalty towards the Alawite president.[16]

Criticism

[edit]

Salah al-Din al-Bitar, a member of the classical Ba'athist leadership, stated that the 1966 Syrian coup d'état "marked the end of Ba'athist politics in Syria". Ba'ath party founder Michel Aflaq shared the sentiment by stating, "I no longer recognise my party!"[8]

According to Jamal al-Atassi, co-founder of the Arab Ba'ath Party, stated that "Assadism is a false nationalism. It's the domination of a minority, and I'm not talking just of the Alawites, who control the society's nervous system. I include also the army and the mukhabarat. [...] And despite its socialist slogans, the state is run by a class who has made a fortune without contributing—a nouvelle bourgeoisie parasitaire."[17]

President of the United Arab Republic, Gamal Abdel Nasser, accused the neo-Ba'athists of Syria of anti-religion and sectarianism.[18]

History

[edit]

Hafez al-Assad's presidency

[edit]

Corrective movement

[edit]
Military Committee members Salim Hatum (left), Muhammad Umran (center) and Salah Jadid (right) celebrating after the 1963 coup d'état

Neo-Ba'athism took power in Syria following the 1966 Syrian coup d'état. After the 1967 Six-Day War, tensions between Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad increased, and al-Assad and his associates were strengthened by their hold on the military. In late 1968,[19] they began dismantling Jadid's support network, facing ineffectual resistance from the civilian branch of the party that remained under Jadid's control.[20] This duality of power persisted until the Corrective Revolution of November 1970, when al-Assad ousted and imprisoned Atassi and Jadid.[21] He then set upon a project of rapid institution-building, reopened parliament and adopted a permanent constitution for the country, which had been ruled by military fiat and a provisional constitutional documents since 1963.[21] Assad significantly modified his predecessor's radical socialist economic policies, encouraged several wealthy urban families to increase their activities in the private sector, and allowed limited foreign investment from Arab countries in the Persian Gulf region States.[22]

Yom Kippur war

[edit]

Hafez al-Assad's reign was marked by the virtual abandonment of Pan-Arab ideology; replacing it with the doctrine of socialist transformation and giving overriding priority in constructing socialist society within Syria.[23] Political participation was limited to the National Progressive Front, the ruling coalition of Syrian Baath and Marxist–Leninist parties; entrenching itself firmly within the Soviet Bloc. The Party also began building a personality cult around Assad and brought the elite of the armed forces under Assad's grip and the officer corps were installed with Alawite loyalists, further alienating the Sunni majority from the party.[24] When Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1971, the army began to modernize and change. In the first 10 years of Assad's rule, the army increased by 162%, and by 264% by 2000. At one point, 70% of the country's GDP went only to the army. On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory. The village of Quneitra was largely destroyed by the Israeli army.[25]

Islamist uprising in Syria

[edit]
Photo of Syrian military general Hafez al-Assad during the 1970 coup

By the late 1970s, the state apparatus of the neo-Ba'athist regime under Assad had consolidated into an anti-Sunni orientation. Official propaganda incited Alawite farmers against rich Sunni landowners and regularly disseminated stereotypes of Sunni merchants and industrialists, casting them as enemies of nationalization and socialist revolution. Bitterness towards the Assadist regime and the Alawite elite in the neo-Ba'ath and armed forces became widespread amongst the Sunni majority, laying the beginnings of an Islamic resistance. Prominent leaders of Muslim Brotherhood like Issam al-Attar were imprisoned and exiled. A coalition of the traditional Syrian Sunni ulema, Muslim Brotherhood revolutionaries and Islamist activists formed the Syrian Islamic Front in 1980 with objective of overthrowing Assad through Jihad and establishing an Islamic state. In the same year, Hafez officially supported Iran in its war with Iraq and controversially began importing Iranian fighters and terror groups into Lebanon and Syria. This led to rising social tensions within the country which eventually became a full-fledged Islamist rebellion in 1982; led by the Islamic Front. The regime responded by slaughtering the Sunni inhabitants in Hama and Aleppo and bombarding numerous mosques, killing around 20,000–40,000 civilians. The uprising was brutally crushed and Assad regarded the Muslim Brethren as demolished.[26]

Soviet alliance

[edit]

Syria under Hafez al-Assad was a staunch Soviet ally and firmly aligned itself with Soviet Bloc during the height of the Cold War. Soviet Union saw Syria as the lynchpin of its Middle-East strategy and signed the Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation in 1980; directly committing itself to Syria's defense and incorporating the Syrian armed forces into Soviet standards. For his part, Hafez committed himself to socialist economic and foreign policies; and was one of the few autocrats to openly support the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The end of the Cold War and collapse of the Soviet Union dealt a deep blow to Assad, who retained the nostalgia for the old order.[27][28] Assad continued to rule Syria until his death in 2000, by centralizing powers in the state presidency.[29]

Syrian occupation of Lebanon

[edit]

Syria was invited into Lebanon by its president, Suleiman Frangieh, in 1976, to intervene on the side of the Lebanese government against Palestine Liberation Organization guerilla fighters and Lebanese Maronite forces amid the Lebanese Civil War. The Arab Deterrent Force originally consisted of a Syrian core, up to 25,000 troops, with participation by some other Arab League states totaling only around 5,000 troops.[30][31][32] In late 1978, after the Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, the Sudanese, the Saudis and the United Arab Emirates announced intentions to withdraw troops from Lebanon, extending their stay into the early months of 1979 at the Lebanese government's request.[33] The Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home, and the ADF thereby became a purely Syrian force, although it did include the Palestine Liberation Army.[34] A year after Israel invaded and occupied Southern Lebanon during the 1982 Lebanon War, the Lebanese government failed to extend the ADF's mandate, thereby effectively ending its existence, although not the Syrian or Israeli military presence in Lebanon.[35] Eventually the Syrian presence became known as the Syrian occupation of Lebanon.

Syrian forces lingered in Lebanon throughout the civil war in Lebanon, eventually bringing most of the nation under Syrian control as part of a power struggle with Israel, which had occupied areas of southern Lebanon in 1978. In 1985, Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon, as a result of domestic opposition in Israel and international pressure.[36] In the aftermath of this withdrawal, the War of the Camps broke out, with Syria fighting their former Palestinian allies. The Syrian occupation of Lebanon continued until 2005.[37]

Diplomatic efforts

[edit]

In a major shift in relations with both other Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the United States-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. The country participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel along with Palestine and Jordan. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in 2000.[38]

Bashar al-Assad's presidency

[edit]

Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected president in an election in which he ran unopposed.[39] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.[40] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.[41][42][43] On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad.[44] In March 2004, Syrian Kurds and Arabs clashed in the northeastern city of al-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli and Hasakeh.[45] In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.[46] Assassination of Rafic Hariri in 2005 led to international condemnation and triggered a popular Intifada in Lebanon, known as "the Cedar Revolution" which forced the Assad regime to withdraw its 20,000 Syrian soldiers in Lebanon and end its 29-year-long military occupation of Lebanon.[47][48] On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried out Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians.[49]

Syrian civil war

[edit]
Military situation in December 2015. Islamic State-controlled territory is in grey.

The Syrian civil war began in 2011 as a part of the wider Arab Spring, a wave of upheaval throughout the Arab World. Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule. Since spring 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged,[50][51] though the unrest continued. According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.[52] The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble.[53] Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an insurgency campaign against the Syrian Army. The insurgents unified under the banner of the Free Syrian Army and fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership.[54]

The uprising has sectarian undertones, though neither faction in the conflict has described sectarianism as playing a major role. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are Alawites,[55] affiliated with Shia Islam. As a result, the opposition is winning support from the Sunni Muslim states, whereas the government is publicly supported by the Shia dominated Iran and the Lebanese Hezbollah. According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 13,470–19,220 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 6,035–6,570 armed combatants from both sides[56][57][58][59] and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.[60] Many more have been injured, and tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned. According to the Syrian government, 9,815–10,146 people, including 3,430 members of the security forces, 2,805–3,140 insurgents and up to 3,600 civilians, have been killed in fighting with what they characterize as "armed terrorist groups."[61] To escape the violence, tens of thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Jordan, Iraq and Lebanon,[62] as well to Turkey.[63] The total official UN numbers of Syrian refugees reached 42,000 at the time,[64] while unofficial number stood at as many as 130,000.

Government collapse

[edit]
Military situation after the start of the opposition offensives in late 2024.

On 27 November 2024, violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army (SNA), had taken control of Aleppo, prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, supported by Russia. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in rebel-held city of Idlib, resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to the White Helmets rescue group. The NATO countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 2254, which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The rebel offensive, which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued its advance into Hama Province following their capture of Aleppo.[65][66][67] The government of Bashar al-Assad was overthrown on 8 December 2024 after the capture of Damascus by the Syrian opposition.[68] The Baath party suspended its activities in Syria after Islamist-led rebel forces toppled Assad's government.[69]

References

[edit]
  1. ^
    • Cavoški, Jovan (2022). Non-Aligned Movement Summits: A History. UK: Bloomsburry. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-3500-3209-5. Syria, headed by the radical leftist Baath Party overtly challenged Nasser's leadership credentials by highlighting his diminished revolutionary spirit.
    • I. Dawisha, Adeed (1980). "3: External and Internal Setting". Syria and the Lebanese Crisis. London, UK: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-349-05373-5. The change has been particularly marked under Asad. He has created a fairly popular Presidential regime: radical left, the most advanced socialist regime in the Arab world, it is progressively widening the frame to include more peasants and labourers.
    • The Israel Economist. Vol. 26–27. University of Minnesota: Kollek & Son, Limited. 1970. p. 61. The ideology propounded by the Ba'ath changed completely. The accent on Arab nationalism was discarded as was moderate socialism. Their place was taken by Syrian nationalism and extreme left-wing ideas verging on communism.
    • Abadi, Jacob (2004). Israel's Quest for Recognition and Acceptance in Asia: Garrison State Diplomacy. London, UK: Frank Class Publishers. p. 22. ISBN 0-7146-5576-7. radical left-wing Ba'ath party in Syria.
    • S. Abu Jaber, Kamel (1966). The Arab Ba'th Socialist Party: History, Ideology and Organization. Syracuse, New York, USA: Syracuse University Press. pp. xii–xiii, 33–47, 75–97. LCCN 66-25181. The leadership now in control of Syria does not represent the gamut of the Ba'th party. It is composed mainly of extreme leftists vesting almost exclusive authority in the military wing of the party.
    • Hopwood, Derek (2013). Syria 1945–1986: Politics and Society. Routledge. pp. 45–46, 73–75, 90. doi:10.4324/9781315818955. ISBN 9781317818427. The period 1963 to 1970 when Asad finally succeeded was marked ideologically by uncertainty and even turbulence. It was a period of transition from the old nationalist politicians to the radical socialist Baathis ... struggle between 'moderates' and radicals was centred on the dispute whether to impose a radical left wing government and a social revolution on Syria or to follow a more moderate Arab unionist course which would possibly appease opponents of the Baath. The radicals largely held the upper hand and worked to strengthen the control of the party over the state.
    • Phillips, Christopher (2020). The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East. London, UK: Yale University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-300-21717-9. In 1963 ... the socialist Ba'ath Party, seized power. The radical left wing of the party then launched an internal coup in 1966, initiating accelerated land reform
    • Mikhaĭlovich Vasil'ev, Alekseĭ (1993). Russian Policy in the Middle East: From Messianism to Pragmatism. University of Michigan, USA: Ithaca Press. pp. 63, 76. ISBN 978-0863721687. Syrian Baathist version of Arab nationalism and socialism offered plenty of points of contact with Soviet policy ... when the left-wing Baathist faction led by Nureddin Atasi came to power, accelerated Syria's rapprochement with the Soviet Union ... for the USSR Syria remained an uneasy ally whose actions were beyond control, often unpredictable and the cause of complications. The ultra-leftist slogans originating from Damascus (such as a 'people's war') were not received enthusiastically in Moscow. Mustafa Tlas, the new Syrian chief of staff, was a theoretician of guerrilla warfare and had even translated works by Che Guevara who was not particularly popular among the Soviet leaders.
    • Climent, James (2015). World Terrorism: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence from Ancient Times to the Post-9/11 Era (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 383. ISBN 978-0-7656-8284-0. influence of different views, came from the more radical left-wing nationalist groups. These groups included ... Syria's Ba'ath party which seized power in Damascus in 1963
  2. ^ Ben-Tzur, Avraham (1968-07-01). "The Neo-Ba'th Party of Syria". Journal of Contemporary History. 3 (3): 161–181. doi:10.1177/002200946800300310. ISSN 0022-0094.
  3. ^ Galvani, John (1974). "Syria and the Baath Party". MERIP Reports (25): 3–16. doi:10.2307/3011567. ISSN 0047-7265. JSTOR 3011567. Archived from the original on 2022-11-04. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
  4. ^ Mann, Joseph (2007-01-01). "The Conflict with Israel According to Neo-Ba'ath Doctrine". Israel Affairs. 13: 116–130. doi:10.1080/13537120601063358. Archived from the original on 2024-12-07. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
  5. ^ Meininghaus, Esther (2016). "Introduction". Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I. B. Tauris. pp. 1–33. ISBN 978-1-78453-115-7.
  6. ^ Korany, Bahgat; Dessouki, Ali (2010-07-15), The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Globalization, American University in Cairo Press, pp. 423–424, ISBN 978-977-416-360-9
  7. ^ Dam, Nikolaos van (2011). 10: Conclusions: The struggle for power in Syria: politics and society under Asad and the Ba'th Party (4 ed.). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-760-5.
  8. ^ a b Pipes, Daniel (1992). Greater Syria: the history of an ambition. Oxford University paperback. New York: Oxford Univ. Pr. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-19-506022-5.
  9. ^ Roberts, David (2015). "13: Conclusions". The Ba'ath and the creation of modern Syria (Routledge Library Editions: Syria ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 136–139. ISBN 978-0-415-83882-5.
  10. ^ Walt, Stephen (1987). "3:From the Baghdad Pact to the Six Day War". The Origins of Alliances. Cornell University Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-0-8014-9418-5.
  11. ^ F. Devlin, John (1976). "16: Military Ascendancy in Syria". The Baath Party: A History From its Origins to 1966. Stanford University, California: Hoover Institution Press. pp. 281–307. ISBN 978-0817965617.
  12. ^ Galvani, John (February 1974). "Syria and the Baath Party". MERIP Reports (25): 3, 7–10. doi:10.2307/3011567. JSTOR 3011567. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
  13. ^ Pierret, Thomas (2013). "4: The State Management of religion in Syria". In Heydemann, Steven; Leenders, Reinoud (eds.). Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation and regime resilience in Syria and Iran. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. pp. 86–89. ISBN 978-0-8047-8301-9.
  14. ^ "Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview" (PDF). pp. 364–365. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
  15. ^ Pierret, Thomas (2013). "4: The State Management of Religion in Syria". In Heydemann, Steven; Leenders, Reinoud (eds.). Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation and regime resilience in Syria and Iran. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. pp. 89–94. ISBN 978-0-8047-8301-9.
  16. ^ "Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview" (PDF). p. 366. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
  17. ^ Viorst, Milton (1994). Sandcastles: the Arabs in search of the modern world. Syracuse University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0224033237.
  18. ^ S. Abu Jaber, Kamel (1966). The Arab Ba'th Socialist Party: History, Ideology and Organization (1st ed.). Syracuse, New York, USA: Syracuse University Press. pp. xii–xiii, 76–78, 93–95. LCCN 66-25181.
  19. ^ Seale 1990, p. 142.
  20. ^ Seale 1990, pp. 149–150.
  21. ^ a b Federal Research Division 2004, p. 213.
  22. ^ "Syria Between Two Transitions". MERIP. 15 June 1997. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  23. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1996). Syria Beyond the Peace Process. Daniel Pipes. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-944029-64-0.
  24. ^ Roberts, David (2015). The Ba'ath and the creation of modern Syria (Routledge Library Editions: Syria ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 53, 106–108. ISBN 978-0-415-83882-5.
  25. ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (2005). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East. New York City: Schocken Books. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-8052-4176-1.
  26. ^ Roberts, David (2015). "12: Hafiz al-Asad - II". The Ba'ath and the creation of modern Syria (Routledge Library Editions: Syria ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 114–117, 119–121. ISBN 978-0-415-83882-5.
  27. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1995). "1: Assad's Post-Soviet Predicament". Syria Beyond the Peace Process. Washington Institute for Near East Policy. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0-944029-64-7.
  28. ^ Rezaei, Farhad (2019). "3: Iran and Russia: Completing the Pivot to the East?". Iran's Foreign Policy After the Nuclear Agreement. Middle East Today. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 62. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76789-5. ISBN 978-3-319-76788-8. S2CID 158854597.
  29. ^ Bar 2006, p. 362.
  30. ^ Weisburd, Arthur (1997). Use of force: the practice of states since World War II. Penn State Press. p. 156. ISBN 9780271016801.
  31. ^ The Current legal regulation of the use of force. Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 195–197. ISBN 90-247-3247-6. OCLC 12663376.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  32. ^ Thompson, Eric V. (2002). "Will Syria Have to Withdraw from Lebanon?". Middle East Journal. 56 (1): 72–93, 76. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 4329721. Archived from the original on 2024-11-12. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  33. ^ The Current legal regulation of the use of force. Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 196–197. ISBN 90-247-3247-6. OCLC 12663376.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  34. ^ The Current legal regulation of the use of force. Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 192–197. ISBN 90-247-3247-6. OCLC 12663376.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  35. ^ The Current legal regulation of the use of force. Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 198–201. ISBN 90-247-3247-6. OCLC 12663376.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  36. ^ Friedman, Thomas (May 26, 1985). "LEGACY OF WAR; ISRAEL MAKES A BITTER DEAL, NEW BATTLE JOLTS LEBANON". NY Times. Archived from the original on May 23, 2021. Retrieved May 23, 2021.
  37. ^ "Assad announces Lebanon troop withdrawal". www.theguardian.com. March 5, 2005. Retrieved May 23, 2021.
  38. ^ Marc Perelman (11 July 2003). "Syria Makes Overture Over Negotiations". Forward.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2006. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
  39. ^ "Background Note: Syria". United States Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, May 2007. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  40. ^ George, Alan (2003). Syria: neither bread nor freedom. London: Zed Books. pp. 56–58. ISBN 978-1-84277-213-3.
  41. ^ Michael Bröning (7 March 2011). "The Sturdy House That Assad Built". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 7 May 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
  42. ^ Ghadry, Farid N. (Winter 2005). "Syrian Reform: What Lies Beneath". The Middle East Quarterly. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
  43. ^ "Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
  44. ^ Huggler, Justin (6 October 2003). "Israel launches strikes on Syria in retaliation for bomb attack". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
  45. ^ "Naharnet Newsdesk – Syria Curbs Kurdish Riots for a Merger with Iraq's Kurdistan". Naharnet.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
  46. ^ Guerin, Orla (6 March 2005). "Syria sidesteps Lebanon demands". BBC News. Archived from the original on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
  47. ^ "Last Syrian troops out of Lebanon". Los Angeles Times. 27 April 2005. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
  48. ^ "Assad announces Lebanon troop withdrawal". www.theguardian.com. March 5, 2005. Retrieved May 23, 2021.
  49. ^ Sanger, David (14 October 2007). "Israel Struck Syrian Nuclear Project, Analysts Say". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
  50. ^ "Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama'". BBC News. 5 May 2011. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
  51. ^ "'Dozens killed' in Syrian border town". Al Jazeera. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
  52. ^ "'Defected Syria security agent' speaks out". Al Jazeera. 8 June 2011. Archived from the original on 13 June 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  53. ^ "Syrian army starts crackdown in northern town". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
  54. ^ Sengupta, Kim (20 February 2012). "Syria's sectarian war goes international as foreign fighters and arms pour into country". The Independent. Antakya. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
  55. ^ Sengupta, Kim (20 February 2012). "Syria's sectarian war goes international as foreign fighters and arms pour into country". The Independent. Antakya. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
  56. ^ "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights". Syriahr.com. Archived from the original on 2014-04-21. Retrieved 2012-05-17.
  57. ^ "Arab League delegates head to Syria over 'bloodbath'". USA Today. 22 December 2011. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  58. ^ "Number as a civil / military". Translate.googleusercontent.com. Archived from the original on 22 July 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
  59. ^ Enders, David (2012-04-19). "Syria's Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border". Myrtle Beach Sun News. Archived from the original on 2014-10-25. Retrieved 2012-05-17.
  60. ^ "Syria: Opposition, almost 11,500 civilians killed". Ansamed.ansa.it. 2010-01-03. Archived from the original on 2014-03-28. Retrieved 2012-05-17.
  61. ^ 6,143 civilians and security forces (15 March 2011-20 March 2012),[1] Archived 2012-04-23 at the Wayback Machine 865 security forces (21 March-1 June),"Syrian Arab news agency - SANA - Syria : Syria news ::". Archived from the original on 2012-10-29. Retrieved 2012-07-17. 3,138 insurgents (15 March 2011-30 May 2012),[2] Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback MachineEnders, David (2012-04-19). "Syria's Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border". Myrtle Beach Sun News. Archived from the original on 2014-10-25. Retrieved 2014-12-13. total of 10,146 reported killed
  62. ^ "Syria: Refugees brace for more bloodshed". News24. 12 March 2012. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  63. ^ "Syrian Refugees May Be Wearing Out Turks' Welcome". NPR. 11 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  64. ^ "Syria crisis: Turkey refugee surge amid escalation fear". BBC News. 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 8 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  65. ^ "Syria: US, Germany, France, UK call for de-escalation". DW News. 2 December 2024. Archived from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
  66. ^ "Fighting Worsens Already Dire Conditions in Northwestern Syria". The New York Times. 4 December 2024. Archived from the original on 9 December 2024. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
  67. ^ "Syrian hospital hit in air attack on opposition-held Idlib". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2024-12-03. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  68. ^ "Syrian rebels topple Assad who flees to Russia in Mideast shakeup". Retrieved 16 December 2024.
  69. ^ "Once a leading force, Assad's Baath party wiped off Mideast politics: analysts". France 24. 15 December 2024. Archived from the original on 16 December 2024. Retrieved 16 December 2024.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Neo-Ba%27athism&oldid=1263898449"